9:15 am- My arrival, Aleigha told me about her new haircut
9:20 am- Good morning meeting and sharing (Jeremy shared about video games and being at Hunter's house) Lights were off with a few scattered lights on
9:25 am- Spelling Test (No excuse words), Tables quiet, Kallie on floor doing independenet task, Mrs. Shea walks around the room making sure they are behaving.
9:30 am- Classroom Meeting with Mrs. Doyle about personal saftey, drugs, and alcohol. Personal goals. (Kelsey-soccer goals, Nick-homerun, Aleigha-get 1st in math, Keyson-Dirt bike, Aaron-sign people up for Upword sports, Brynn-training wheels off)
10:00 am- Mid Chapter math practice
10:20 am - Played Mancala with Hailey. She won and really broke out of her shy shell with me today
10:30 am- Played Snap it up with Brynn. She won and was really excited
10:40 am- Snack and word problem. Carson having a hard time trying to focus
10:45 am- Rescess
11:00 am- Music Class
11:30am- Social Studies lesson on salmon and Native Americans
11:45 am- worked with Hunter, Hailey, and Emilee on social studies lesson. Helped Emilee read the passages
11:55 am- Aleigha and Kelsey joined the group and had group discussions about what was the importiant peices of what we learned.
12:05 pm- Class disscussion about salmon and Native Americans
12:15 pm- Video with Mrs. C's Class
12:30 pm- Video over and class instructed to meet in large group so that Madison can share about her camping trip that she had over the spring break
12:40 pm- Aleigha an Nick had a fight where Aleigha shoved Nick into the coat closet.
12:45 pm- Lunch/Recess
1:20 pm- DOL/REad to self. Talked to Nick about Greek Mythology, helped Emma with her DOL, helped Bethany with a book choice, had a talk with Carson about his focusing
2:00 pm- Checked and Corrected DOL
2:05 pm- Finished Spelling test
2:15 pm- Tapped books together
2:35 pm- Read a story written by Nick
3:00 pm- Bucket fillers
Ponderosa Reflections 4/12/2010
I think it is amazing that at a young age they are talking to the students about personal saftey when it comes to drugs, alcohol and being safe citizens.
I didn't know that D.A.R.E was implimented in 1983 and that it is all over the United States. I was a dare graduate in Spokane about 10 years ago. That was the only experiance with learning drugs and alcohol growing up other then the information that my mom and dad had given me. I think that this program is benificial but it needs to be implimented at younger ages.
I like the program that our school has going. Our guidence counsler at the end of the year comes in every friday for a month and talks to the students about drugs, alcohol and being safe when playing. In this program they some of the following topics:
Nutrition
Drugs
Alcohol
Being good citizens
Being good friends
So not only are they talking about drugs and alcohol but how to be good members of society.
Article #1 4/12/2010 DARE Goes Way Beyond Drug and Alcohol Prevention
D.A.R.E. Goes Way Beyond Drug & Alcohol Prevention
Since its inception in 1983, the D.A.R.E. program has continuously responded to the most important challenges facing our children. While D.A.R.E. remains the largest and most comprehensive anti-drug, alcohol, and violence education program in the world, D.A.R.E is also tackling major problems facing our children including abuse of prescription drugs, bullying, and internet safetythrough special supplemental curricula. No other organization offers such comprehensive educational lessons.
The Presidential Proclamation declaring April 8, 2010, as National D.A.R.E. Dayis a reflection of and testament to the regard in which D.A.R.E. is held. President Barack Obama joins every U.S. president since the inception of D.A.R.E. in 1983 – Presidents Ronald Reagan, George H.W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush – in endorsing the D.A.R.E. program. Our American Presidents are in good company. Major law enforcement agencies, educational and scientific organizations, and state legislatures have recognized D.A.R.E.’s effectiveness including the National Sheriff’s Association, International Association of Chiefs of Police, the National Journal of Medicine, and even the United Nations.
Article #2 4/12/2010 Alternatives to the Failed DARE program
Alternatives to the Failed DARE (Drug Abuse Resistance Education) Program
The popular Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE) program has consistently and without exception been found by scientific research to be ineffective and sometimes counterproductive -- that is, worse than doing nothing. That’s the conclusion of the US Department of Education (DOE), the US Surgeon General, the US General Accountability Office (GAO), and the American Academy of Sciences, among others. The Department of Education strictly prohibits the use of any of its funding to support DARE in any school.
Fortunately, schools are not faced with the choice between DARE and no program. A federal agency (SAMSHA) has identified 66 model programs, any one of which would be preferable to the ineffective DARE program
Amanda Note: They have alternatives to the D.A.R.E program listed on the follwing website.
845 am- Arrival 905 am- students start coming in. 910 am- Morning meeting starts 920 am sharing time. kids share about what they did over the weekend 1000 am- Math starts. We are working on fractions and using manipulatives. 1045 am-Snack and handwriting 11 am- students in from recess 11:10- Students go to Physical Education 11:30- students go to music 12:00 -go pick up the students 12:05- social studies lesson on Native Americans and the Buffalo 1245-kids go to lunch and recess 100- Kids come back from recess and lunch 115- start of literacy block (read to self) 130- Kids are reading National Geographic Kids about lizards 200- I meet with my Book club Girls 300- planners and wrap ups 310-Kids go home
Article #1 The effects of participating in book clubs for people with Intellectual Disabilities
NCBC 1 The Effects of Participating in Book Clubs for People with Intellectual Disabilities A Senior Honors Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for Graduation with Distinction in Psychology in the Undergraduate Colleges of The Ohio State University By Sarah Michalos The Ohio State University May, 2007 Project Advisors: Dr. Steven Reiss, Department of Psychology Dr. Tom Fish, Division of Social Work NCBC 2 Abstract The Next Chapter Book Club (NCBC) is an innovative program that allows individuals with intellectual disabilities to meet at book stores, libraries and coffee shops and read a book of the groups’ choice. The study of NCBC looked at five measures including language skill, motivation, behavioral problems, quality-of-life and overall satisfaction with the book club. The study was conducted at the Ohio State Nisonger Center. The participants were individuals who were either currently active in the book club and those who were no longer active in the book club. The participants were provided by the Columbus Board of Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities (FCBMR/DD) and various programs at the Nisonger Center. Ten participants who were still active in the club were matched based on age, gender, IQ and living environment with eight participants who were no longer active in the club. The expected results included improved language skills, increased motivation to read, learn and interact socially, a decrease in social behavioral problems and an overall higher quality-of-life. The actual results suggest that the need for social contact and community connectedness was evident in both members and non-members. There were fewer behavioral problems in active members, an increase in curiosity and motivation and an overall satisfaction with their experience in the book club. The theoretical implications suggest that individuals with intellectual disabilities who are exposed to reading and social environments will want to read and interact with other individuals in a social setting as well as read better and feel better about themselves in comparison to those individuals that are not exposed to reading in social settings. The practical implications suggest that the lives of people with mental retardation will live happier, more fulfilling lives when they have a feeling of social connectedness and encounter a stimulating environment. NCBC 3 The Next Chapter Book Club is an innovative program founded by Dr. Tom Fish at The Ohio State University. Individuals who have intellectual disabilities (ID) meet with facilitators at local book stores, coffee shops and libraries to read a book of their choice. Facilitators are volunteers that assist the participants in reading. The mission of the book club is for the members to feel social connectedness and community inclusion. By meeting in public arenas, the members participate in their local community settings and feel the stimulation of people though friendly interaction. The book club members may experience a better overall quality of life. The community settings also allow for interaction with people in the stores. Started in Columbus, Ohio, The Next Chapter Book Club (NCBC) has attracted national interest. There is a total of 14 clubs in the Columbus metropolitan area comprised of about 100 individuals. There have been no empirical evaluations on this book club since its founding. By studying the NCBC will provide researchers with important information on the effects of participating in a book club for people with ID. People with ID now have a place to meet in community settings and utilize their curiosity. People with ID have the right to participate and interact as equal members in their communities. This program allows people with ID to learn by repetition, learn by echo reading, make new friends and feel a sense of community inclusion. The purpose of the thesis is to collect and analyze the initial data of people with mental retardation and their families. Ten book club members in the Columbus metropolitan area will take a battery of assessments. The measurements are comprised of six main categories including social connectedness, language, motivation, social behavior, quality-of-life and overall satisfaction with the book club experience. The NCBC 4 research strategy will include eight controls who are no longer members in the book club matched on age, gender, IQ and living environment. The expected results include an overall increase in the member’s quality of life. A book club member’s quality of life is going to be measured by their improvement in language, increased motivation to read and participate in social activities, decreased behavioral problems and their happiness with being a member in The Next Chapter Book Club. The data for the book club members and controls will be compared through a correlation matrix and an independent samples ttest. Hypothesis I: Participation in the NCBC is expected to increase social interactions. The main goal for the Next Chapter Book Club is for the members to feel a sense of social connectedness and community inclusion. Social connectedness will be defined as a feeling of having people around in which one can interact with, talk to and/or feel included. Social inclusion and connectedness are well recognized by various psychological experts, including the 1997 Gatehouse Project Adolescent Health Survey of 8 Year Students. The findings of the 1997 project revealed that an individual with poor social connectedness will be two to three times more likely to experience depression. This study founded that a sense of community inclusion is clearly implicated in a person’s mental state and personal well- being. Fish and Graff (2006) suggest that interpersonal connections, friendships and belonging play important roles in a person’s emotional and physical well-being. Members’ may make new friends and have new social connections. By being an active member in the book club, individuals will meet new people, interact in new social environments and have an overall positive sense of well-being and thus, lack feelings of depression. NCBC 5 Hypothesis II: Participation in the book club will improve social interaction and decrease social behavioral problems. Involvement in the book club allows members’ to learn new ways of interacting that are appropriate in social and community settings. Social behavior will simply be measured in the manner in which a person acts or controls oneself. A number of studies have suggested that people with ID have significant social behavioral problems. Shessel and Reiff (1999) suggested actual differences of people with ID are related to social difficulties. Hypothesis III: Satisfaction with the book club will be associated with the motivation for individual need for social contact (extroversion) and with individual need for cognition (curiosity). Reiss (2005) defines motivation as a true assertion of intrinsically held values. He also suggests that motivation has two characteristics; intrinsically associated goals and the intensity of desire for that goal. Reiss (2004) suggests that it is important to look at motivation because the need to think (curiosity) and social extroversion predict satisfaction more than people who do not like to think (are not curious) and introversion. If you are an introvert and you do not want to learn, then you probably are not going to learn as much. The NCBC may attract many people with non-normative intensities of psychological needs. This study also will assess the motivational profile of participants in NCBC. Reiss and Havercamp (1998) found a validated taxonomy of 16 psychological needs that motivate much of what people do. Repeated demonstrations of his research showed validity in large diverse samples. These samples include factor validity, testretest reliability, concurrent validity and predicted validity of behavior. Sixteen principals of psychological needs predict behavior in meaningful real life situations. By NCBC 6 administering the Reiss motivational profile MRDD version to people that are starting the NCBC, we will be able to assess which of the ten motives-such as the need to socialize, the need to think and the need to be accepted. They found that the method variance was only 10 out of the 16 fundamental motives that could be assessed in people with MRDD. This version has a standardized validated scale that assesses need for curiosity and social skills. Reiss (1998) suggests that curiosity in people with ID has little to do with their IQ. Rather, the curiosity in individuals with ID can be distinguished from the individuals’ actual ability to learn. Reiss’ study suggests that if an individual with ID is curious enough to want to learn, they will have an overall better learning experience. Hypothesis IV: The NCBC will increase vocabulary and language as measured by the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) and the Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). During this research, the language variable will be defined as the ability to understand and use symbols for communication, including both oral and written forms (Hammill & McNutt, 1980). Members’ in the NCBC will have improved vocabulary and language because they will be practicing reading and hearing words. By hearing and repeating while reading, it exposes them to words they might not have been exposed to outside the book club. The involvement of members in the NCBC will enhance their lives and their learning experience. I propose that by reading books monthly will increase their ability to recognize words, sounds and syllables as a form of language to communicate with those in the book club and other family members and friends. Hypothesis V: The members’ quality of life (QOL) will improve. Their QOL will improve because the individuals will be included and less excluded. While quality of life NCBC 7 can be measured in numerous ways, a person’s quality of life will be defined by the individuals overall enjoyment of life and fulfillment derived from their social, cultural and environmental conditions. Hypothesis VI: Participation in the NCBC is a satisfying experience. Satisfaction will be measured and assessed by ratings of satisfaction with various aspects of the NCBC. This is the first book club for people with ID. The book club will provide people with ID a way to meet new people, learn new things and interact in different community environments, thus providing an overall satisfying experience. Satisfaction will be measured in terms of the members overall sense of well being as an active participant in the book club. The satisfaction scale is comprised of five simple questions composed by Dr. Steven Reiss, 2007. My hypotheses are as follows: Participation in the NCBC is expected to increase social interactions. Satisfaction with the book club will be associated with the motivation for individual need for social contact (extroversion) and with individual need for cognition (curiosity). The NCBC will increase vocabulary and language as measured by the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT). The members’ quality of life (QOL) will improve because the individuals will be included and less excluded. Participation in the NCBC is a satisfying experience. The purpose of this study is to present practical and theoretical implications on the involvement of the Next Chapter Book Club and the reasons for focusing on the variables of motivation, language and learning, social behavior, social connectedness and community inclusion, quality- of- life and satisfaction with member involvement. The NCBC 8 experimental design suggests that these variables (dependent) will be altered because of participation (independent) in the club. Method Participants Participants in the NCBC are recruited from their local county MRDD and by word of mouth from family and friends. They voluntarily register in a book club that meets proximal to where they live. The NCBC member population is comprised of adult aged (18+) individuals of sub-average intelligence. The book clubs include a similar amount of males and females. The club is also very ethnically and racially diverse. Letters and permission forms were sent to about 200 members and nonmembers along with their respective parents and/or guardians. A total of 18 participants responded to the mailing. The subjects in the study include ten individuals with intellectual disabilities that are currently enrolled in the Next Chapter Book Club. They will be administered a battery of assessments. They will serve as the experimental group. Eight matched controls will be used as the control group who used to be active in the NCBC, but are no longer active members. There were a total of six females and four males in the member group. There were a total of three females and five males in the non-member group. The Ss will be matched based on IQ, social environment, gender and age. There will be a random selection of the matched controls as well as the experimental group. Materials The materials include using the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT), the Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale- Third Edition (WAIS III), the Reiss Motivational Screen and Profile MRDD Version and a satisfaction survey. NCBC 9 The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test is a measurement tool used to determine the individual’s receptive vocabulary attainment for standard English as well as verbal ability. This version is an individually administered, untimed, norm-referenced, widerange test. The PicturePlate is arranged with 204 test items grouped in 17 sets of 12 items each. The items are arranged in order of increasing difficulty. Each PicturePlate consists of four black- and –white illustrations. The task for the test-taker is to correctly identify the picture that best describes the meaning of a stimulus of a word presented orally by the examiner. The PPVT-III was standardized nationally on a stratified sample of 2,725 persons. Raw scores can be converted to the following age-referenced normative scores. The PPVT-III has been useful in establishing and restoring rapport because of its highly appealing task requires little or no oral response and does not expose the test-taking to extensive failure. The reliability of this measurement tool is rather satisfactory. The characteristics of the items are consistent as well as parallel in the alternate forms. The scores remain stable for about one month. The median split-half reliability coefficient is .81. Validity measures show that the mean correlations of this achievement test ranges from .33 to .80. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Third Edition- Verbal Comprehension Index is a measure of general verbal skills, such as verbal fluency, ability to understand and use verbal reasoning, and verbal knowledge. The vocabulary index provides a series of orally and visually presented words that the examinee orally defines. It is based on both formal and informal educational opportunities, and requires understanding words. The WAIS III has been used for assessing learning disabilities and for determining NCBC 10 exceptionality and giftedness. It is also used for intellectual assessment as part of development programs as well as for clinical research purposes. This is the first and most reliable index. The administrator will point to a word in the booklet and simply ask, “Tell me the meaning of this word.” The administrator will assign a point value to the answer given based on the norm of answers provided in the testing handbook. The scores allocated will either be of a 0, 1, or 2 value. When the answer given is the most appropriate, a 2 value will be given. If the answer is a simple, but still correct answer, a 1 value will be given. In the event that it is too vague and simple (again, based on the norms of the results; including validity and reliability) a 0 will be allocated. If the answer given is in need of a query, the examiner will simply say, “Please tell me more about that.” The examiner must be careful as to not word the statement as a question in caution that the participant does not want to answer the question. The examiner sets a basal set rule which states that the lowest set of items administered contain one or no errors. The ceiling set rule is established as the highest set of items administered containing eight or more errors. Test-retest reliability shows that the reliability (.95) of this index is very good with a small standard error of measurement (3.0). The Reiss Motivational Profile MRDD version has standard validated scales that assess the need for curiosity and need for social skills. This version consists of 15 scaled scores that evaluate 10 different psychological needs (scales and needs noted in appendix A). When items are administered and then a factor analysis is done, a factor validity scale is provided. The test-retest reliability is found by testing the administered items and then retesting them again in order to make sure the scale found is reliable and can be NCBC 11 consistently found in various studies. Concurrent validity are scores that predict similar scores in other validated measures. The predictive validity of behavior gives a score that predict behaviors in real life situations. A satisfaction survey will be given to the participants as well as their parents in order to qualitatively determine the effects the NCBC had on the participants. The utilization of the satisfaction survey allows the investigators to recognize the conscious contentment of participation in the book club. While the other diagnostic tools are grading the participants based on their unconscious effort at interpreting pictures and words, this will be a survey either filled out by a family member or the book club member themselves. Procedure Individuals that are active in a book club will be given a battery of the assessments that were just discussed. This will determine their levels on the aforementioned variables by being in the club. Individuals who are no longer active in the book club will be given the same battery of assessments. This will help determine their levels on the different variables based on their inactivity in the book club. An independent samples t-test will assess whether the means of the two groups (member/nonmember) are statistically significant on 22 variables (appendix B). A correlation matrix will provide us with a degree of relationship of the two variables of being active or inactive in the club. Results The results from the independent samples t-test suggests that the need for social contact and interaction is not statistically significant at the 0.05 level (p-value is 0.40). NCBC 12 Book club membership showed a mean score of 0.69 and non-membership showed a mean score of 0.4. These results suggest that members as well as non-members both have a need for social contact and social interactions. The t-test shows that there is not a statistically significant difference in social behavioral problems in members and non-members as tested by the Reiss Screen. Also, one of the 15 variables on the Reiss Motivational profile was statistically significant: curiosity. For instance, independence and romance are not significantly different in both members and non-members in the book club. The only variable that showed a significant difference on the RMP was curiosity (curiosity significant at .075 with equal variances assumed). There is not a difference between membership and non-membership in terms of language and vocabulary based on the PPVT and WAIS. Therefore, language and vocabulary is not dependent on membership in the book club. The groups are equal. The quality of life based on Reiss’ fundamental motives shows that there is not a statistically significant difference in the member’s life in comparison to the non-members life. All of the fundamental motives (goals and sensitivities) are not significant with numeric values larger than .10. Additionally, the satisfaction in the book club was slightly different for nonmembers when compared to members. The difference was not statistically significant with a p-value of 0.209, but the mean shows a slight difference. Out of a possible score of 25, members reported a mean of 23.6 satisfaction with the club and non-members reported a mean of 21.3. Discussion NCBC 13 The need for social contact and community inclusion is evident in both groups, therefore, hypothesis I is refuted. The majority of individuals with ID want to feel a sense of community inclusion and social connectedness. Those individuals that are in the book club could possibly want more interactions, but they are still interacting with peers and workers in public settings. The individuals no longer in the book clubs could potentially be getting their social contact from other therapeutic or developmental programs. At the Nisonger Center alone, there are several programs that are appropriated towards individuals with ID (e.g. Best Buddies International, Speed Dating Services). A simple questionnaire could investigate why individuals dropped out of the book club and are no longer active. Some participants stated that they are no longer involved because of a conflict of other programs such as The Special Olympics. The results from the RMP refute hypothesis II in terms of social behavioral problems. Membership in the book club decreased social behavioral problems in individuals with ID, but it was not a significant difference. It was anticipated that membership in the book club would improve social interaction, but the hypothesis was refuted. Based on undocumented reasons why participants are no longer active in the book clubs were because of other extra-curricular activities for individuals with ID such as bowling league and other Nisonger Center programs. Individuals no longer in the book club could be fulfilling their need for social interaction through other activities. Hypothesis III is supported because the NCBC members showed a significant increase in curiosity. This can be interpreted as an indication that individuals with curious or sociable personalities are attracted to NCBC. This would make sense because the NCBC promises participants an intellectual and social experience. The result could NCBC 14 mean that the NCBC book clubs as currently constituted may be helping to fulfill needs of curious or sociable people with MR/DD, but not of people with opposite personality traits who may be staying away from participation. This would be important information for understanding the impact of this club and for guiding future development. Would the founders, for example, want to take steps to reach a broader range of personalities? Based on the results, members are more curious than non-members, but both groups have a need for social contact. This would mean that the NCBC attracts people who are motivated by their curiosity (in learning) but both groups are motivated by their interest in socializing. This also suggests that introverts come to the book club to find a means for social interaction. Extroverts are the members that drop out because they can find their social interactions in other activities. The results show a weak correlation between curiosity and satisfaction with the book clubs (p value at .101). This would have implications for demonstrating intellectual needs of people with MR/DD. Most people have assumed that people with MR/DD are not smart enough to need intellectual stimulation. Capacioppo et al., however, have shown only moderate correlations between intelligence and curiosity. Reiss and Reiss (2004), moreover, have demonstrated curiosity in the context of mental retardation. If curiosity is correlated to satisfaction with NCBC, this would be further evidence for the possible importance of gratifying intellectual needs of people with subaverage intelligence. It would mean that just because somebody is not smart, does not mean that they cannot enjoy learning new words and literature. People with ID are not thought to have curiosity, but this NCBC provides these individuals with a need for curiosity. NCBC 15 The results show that the Next Chapter Book Club members do not have an increase in language skill, thus hypothesis IV is refuted. Such a result may have implications for teaching language to people with MR/DD. Learning is insufficient to impact standardized scored (IQ is stable across time), but this could mean that non-verbal people are more likely to be attracted to the NCBC than verbal people. While satisfaction in the book club was fairly consistent across member and nonmember responses, it is important to note that the majority of non-member participants were no longer in the book club because of conflicting activities. Although a lot of nonmembers had a satisfying experience, they had other activities and events to tend to. The majority of them had planned on re-entering a book club once bowling was finished, for example. There are several limitations to this study that is necessary for future research and examination of the book club. The number of participants was very low and makes it hard to generalize the findings to a larger population. While there were only eight members who are no longer active in the book club, it is important to look at why they are no longer active. It is simple to state whether one is active or not active in a program, but the reason behind, or the motive might vary for each individual. The reason might not be because of a lack of motivation, but rather no form of transportation or a conflict with another fundamental program. Although eight non-members were interviewed, the majority of them had mentioned that they had intentions of attending and becoming active members in the book club. This may have had a strong impact on the reasons why a lot of the variables were not statistically significant between the two groups. Another limitation would be that this research is investigating too many variables for the small NCBC 16 population. Ideally, the research was expected to interview 50 plus participants and their parents and/or guardians, but with the low response rate, the research was unable to complete this task. The demographic was not as stratified as it could have been. Instead of recruiting members from only the Columbus area, further research would benefit from recruiting members and non-members from different cities and states around the country. One theoretical implication is that the present study further demonstrates the curiosity of people with ID. Being motivated and having the desire to think and learn is not the same as having the ability to do so. Normative experiments such as the present study will have a profound impact of people with ID. The practical implications include raising public awareness of people with ID as well as giving the book club members an opportunity to experience “café culture.” The practical implications also include a favorable evaluation of the NCBC. This study may provide empirical evidence of the benefits of the NCBC. The significance of this is to encourage the spread of such clubs throughout the nation and beyond. People with MRDD encounter social barriers that exclude them from the community. The NCBC represents an effort to overcome such barriers by providing a slice of ordinary life everyone can understand and making that available to people with disabilities. NCBC 17 Appendix A: Reiss Motivational Variables Independence Attention Order Vengeance Help Others Acceptance Morality Social Contact Curiosity Anxiety Physical Activity Frustration Eating Pain Romance Appendix B: Variables Independence Social contact order Anxiety Help other Frustration morality Pain Curiosity Raw score on PPVT-III Physical activity Raw WAIS Eating Satisfaction Romance Raw score on Reiss Screen Attention Vengeance acceptance NCBC 18 References Capacioppo, J.T., Petty, R.E., Feinstein, J.A., Jarvis, B.G.,(1996). Dispositional differences in cognitive motivation: The life and times of individuals varying in need for cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 197. Fish, T., & Graff, V., (2006, November 30). Next chapter book club: What a novel idea. Exceptional Parent Magazine, 46-48. Hammil, D., & McNutt, G., (1980). Language abilities and reading: A review of the literature on their relationship. The Elementary School Journal, 80(5), 269-277. Reiss, S (2004). Multifaceted nature of intrinsic motivation: The theory of 16 basic desires. Review of General Psychology, 8(3), 179-193. Reiss, S (2005). Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation at 30: Unresolved scientific issues. The Behavior Analyst, 28(1), 1-14. Reiss, S., & Havercamp, S. (1998). Toward a comprehensive assessment of fundamental motivation: Factor structure of the reiss profiles. The American Psychological Association, 10(2), 97-106. Reiss, S., & Reiss, M., (2004). Curiosity and mental retardation: Beyond IQ. Mental Retardation, 42(1), 77-81. Reiss S, & Valenti-Hein D.,(1994). Development of a psychopathology rating scale for children with mental retardation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 62, 28-33. Shessel, I. & Reiff, H. B. (1999). Experiences of adults with learning disabilities: Positive and negative impacts and outcomes. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22(4), 305-316.
Ponderosa Reflections 5/17/2010
I am loving the fact that my master teacher has given me my very own book club. I think that the one on one interaction that I am having with each one of the three girls is very beneficial to their reading. They are getting the help that they need and at the same time doing comprehension strategies that are helping them better understand what they are reading. I agree with both articles in the fact that they are both talking about how book clubs can help more then general education students. I think that using book clubs in areas such as ELL and SPED can be a huge thing. I noticed that as I was teaching my book club the three girls were slowly but surely taking over the club. They really didn't need me in the end. They were helping and guiding each other through the book, they were asking investigative questions and answering each other. I was simply there to help guide any further. I think that if we gave that kind of power to ELL and SPED students the impact would be so great. As ELL or SPED kids they tend to feel isolated and not apart of a group other then other kids labeled the same way they are. With a book club you can mix "general ed" students with ELL and SPED students and they can teach and help each other learn. It gives them a sense of pride that many of them lack.
Article #2 Using Book clubs to increase Multicultural Students intrests in reading
Using Book Clubs to Increase Multicultural Students’ Interests in Reading
Jennifer Miller and Nicole Ogranovitch
GlenForestElementary School
FairfaxCounty (VA) Public Schools
Submitted June 2001
Introduction
In a nine-month study, multicultural students participated in an interactive book club meeting every two weeks.About forty students previously taught by the book club leaders were invited to complete an application to participate in the club.Out of the approximate forty students who received applications, eleven were returned.At the first book club meeting and at the last meeting, students completed reading interest surveys.The surveys’ focus was the students’ personal reading habits as well as their enjoyment in pleasure reading.The ten students participating in the club represented the cultures of Egypt, Malaysia, Afghanistan, Vietnam, the United States, and several countries in Latin America.Throughout the nine months, students read books ranging in genres from science fiction to fantasy and realistic fiction.After completing each book, students participated in a discussion followed by an interactive language arts activity.The selection of books was chosen by the teachers with the exception of the final book being student chosen.At the close of the book club, students showed an increase in student-initiated reading for pleasure.
The Question
Does membership in an interactive book club increase multicultural students’ enjoyment of pleasure reading?
Research
In today’s society children’s desire and motivation for pleasure reading is declining.There are several factors that contribute to this decrease: the advanced technology that is at their fingertips: televisions, VCRs, computers, Internet, Nintendo, and other electronic games and all of these choices to consume their time with now.
Still another factor that effects pleasure reading is the child’s family dynamics.The dynamics are the child’s social, cultural, and economical statuses.Families that are led by a single parent, and even some working class families, may be limited at times by money.Children who have working parents may have increased responsibility at home such as watching younger siblings and cooking meals.
Parents have a great influence on younger children and their reading habits.Homes in which pleasure reading occurs on a regular basis and there is reading material readily available for the children greatly influences their desire for pleasure reading.As for older children, peers are the greater influence for motivation to pleasure read.For this reason, books clubs offer motivation for pleasure reading in older children.
Book clubs offer students a new arena to enjoy recreational reading and to interact with other students.In particular, book clubs offer multicultural students an informal, natural setting in which to interact and learn the new language.Throughout the duration of book club meetings, research has shown that students’ participation, self-confidence and initiation within the book club groups have increased because of students’ increased comfort level with discussing and sharing about texts.
Many articles have cited that teaching students to acquire a new language is difficult, and there are many ways to increase their success.Many factors that add to the success of second language learners acquiring a second language can be found in book clubs.
For individuals to successfully acquire a second language, there needs to be some form of motivation for their learning the new language.Book clubs provide motivation for students learning a second language because of the interactions between group members through the activities and sharing.Within peer groups, children feel less pressure coming from the teacher.The interaction within the peer group is more often in the form of dialogue, as opposed to teacher directed instruction.Book clubs are a social aspect of school in which second language learners can participate in meaningful discussions about literature.The social interactions and discussions serve as motivation for students to acquire their new language.
Collaboration to complete specific tasks also assists second language learners in learning the new language.The collaboration assists all students in interacting and creating meaning of the text with the help of their peers.By utilizing peer groups, there is a larger range of background knowledge and experiences to assist students in creating meaning of text.It has been found that having students attempt to become actively engaged in reading is not as effective without the help of the students’ peer group.Simply the chance to interact and collaborate with peers is motivation for all students, especially multicultural students, to read more often.
Another aspect found in book clubs which increases enjoyment of reading among students, is the presence of a stimulating, high interest reading program for students to participate in.The program should include the discussion of books from a variety of genres.Often students should be given choices as to which books they read.Within this high-interest reading program, teachers should model reading as well as reading activities for the students to learn from.Creating a high-interest reading program allows students to collaborate and interact with the texts to create comprehension.
In conclusion, to increase students’ enjoyment of reading, especially multicultural students, a few factors must be present.Students must be given opportunities to collaborate and interact with their peers.Utilizing a stimulating, high interest program and allowing students to choose some of the books increases motivation for reading.Books and reading programs are a source of motivation for students.Books help students relate to one another, create meaning of text, and increase enjoyment of pleasure reading.
Students
The students that were selected for this project were previous students of the teachers.About forty fourth and fifth graders received applications to participate in the book club.These students represented all reading levels from apprentice (first grade) to young adult (sixth).Out of the forty applications distributed, eleven were returned, five of which were from fourth grade and six from fifth grade.Throughout the course of the year, one fourth grader did not attend the meetings and the book club requested him not to participate.One fifth grader moved to another school half way through the year and another chose not to participate in the book club.In return, another fifth grader that did not receive an application requested to become a member of the book club.The book club voted on this and unanimously agreed to admit him.At the close of the year, there were eight fully active members.These eight members represented eight different nationalities.
Program
The book club’s program consisted of 45 minute meetings before school every two weeks.During these meetings, children were engaged in discussions as well as hands-on activities relating to the assigned book.Some of these activities included creating questions for game shows, locating unknown vocabulary, creating drawings to connect personal experiences with the novels, using Venn Diagrams to compare and contrast novels and their movies, and creating television advertisements for individually read books.These books focused on areas such as realistic issues, creativity and imagination, and the importance of literacy.On average, six students attended each meeting.In the middle of the year, the teachers found that not having full attendance was due to students’ inability to complete the books in the allotted time.After realizing students’ inability to complete the books within the two weeks allotted, the teachers extended the allotted time to three or four weeks between books.This change allowed students to increase their comprehension of each book as well as increase their level of enjoyment of pleasure reading, as opposed to feeling as though the books were class assignments.Changing the frequency of book club meetings increased student participation and decreased absenteeism.
Results
The teachers had the students complete a reading interest survey at the start of theschool year (see Appendix A).Students’ devotion towards pleasure reading, on average, fell within the middle of the scale provided.At the close of the book club, the students completed the same reading interest survey.The end of the year surveys indicated that the students’ interest in pleasure reading increased throughout the year.Out of eight Book Club members, three students’ amount of enjoyment in pleasure reading increased, two decreased, and three students’ rating remained the same.Two of the three students whose ratings remained the same indicated that their enjoyment surpassed the allotted scale so they chose the highest rating possible, which was equal to their pre- Book Club survey.The teachers observed that throughout the year various book club members became more involved in the book discussions and activities by making connections between the books and their personal experiences.
Conclusion
Book Clubs offer multicultural students an opportunity to informally discuss books that are read and the connections that are made.Through the course of the year, Book Club members became more insightful and took more initiative during each meeting.The students in the book club showed an increased enjoyment in pleasure reading.For the two students whose enjoyment in pleasure reading did not increase, television and video games were found to be more of a priority than reading.It is also possible that in these few cases, reading was not a priority partly because the students’ parents are not proficient in English and do not model reading for their children.
The book club yielded positive results, 75% of the participants either increased their enjoyment for pleasure reading or remained the same.Students spent more time reading independently, became more comfortable participating in oral discussions conducted in English, and increased their English vocabulary.Perhaps most importantly these children learned that reading can be fun - a lesson that can potentially impact them for years to come.
References
Angeletti, N. et al. (1996).Improving Elementary Students’ Attitudes toward Recreational Reading. Action Research Project.
French, Michael P. et al. (1989). “Using Children’s Literature.”The Reading Teacher, 90-92.
Haverty, Lisa et al. (1996). “Improving Elementary School Students’ Attitudes toward Voluntary Reading.”M.A. Project, SaintXavierUniversity.
Jensen, K., Papp, S. & Richmond, B. (1998). Improving Children’s Habits in Recreational Reading. Action Research Project, SaintXavierUniversity and IRI/Skylight. 67
Raphael, T. & Brock, C. & Mei, H. (1992). Learning the Literacy Culture in an Urban Elementary School. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Reading Conference.20.
Strickland, D. et al. (1994). School Book Clubs and Literacy Development: A Descriptive Study.NationalResearchCenter on Literature Teaching and Learning.81.
Appendix A
Using Book Clubs to Increase Multicultural Students’ Interests in Reading
The objective: to discover whether an interactive book would increase multicultural students’ enjoyment of pleasure reading.
Research: parental influence, family dynamics, social culture, economic status, motivation, and active involvement in reading
Student population of book club
Program of book club (activities)
Results of book club
Conclusions from book club
Article #1. 5/18/2010- Feild Trip Learning
The Field Trip Milieu: Learning and Behavior as a Function of Contextual Events
JOHN H. FALK JOHN D. BALLING
Chesapeake Bay Center for Environmental Studies
ABSTRACT A study to assess the impact of school field trips on attitudes, behavior, and learning was conducted with 196 third and fifth grade children. Half the children went on an all-day field trip to a nature center to learn about the biology of trees; the other half were taught the same lesson outside their classroom during their regular science period. As measured by pre- and posttests, field experiences resulted in significant immediate learning and 30-day reten- tion for all groups. Observational measures revealed that stu- dent behavior varied as a function of age and environmental context. A model is proposed that relates learning and behavior to both developmental level and environmental novelty.
The field trip remains a conspicuous part of the public school routine for most elementary school children. The annual trek to the zoo, museum, nature center, or other such facility is about as predictable as the Halloween parade and the end-of-school party. On most field trips, the students are put into busses early in the morning, driven to a rather novel setting, led through some activities by a stranger, put back on the bus, and returned at the end of the day. In addition, they usually bring a bag lunch and some money to spend in the gift shop during periods of free time. In many cases, the majority of time is actually spent in transit rather than in direct participation in the lesson. It has never been determined whether such extra- activity factors and the disruption of normal school routine affect behavior during the trip activity, learn- ing of the material presented during the activity, or retention of field trip experiences.
Most research on field trips has focused on a description of either the cognitive outcomes of the ex- perience (c.f. review by Koran & Baker, 1979; Wright, 1980), or on attitude changes as a result of the ex- perience ( Bloomberg, 1929; Brady, 1972; Gottfried, 1981). Little analysis has been presented for why students might behave or learn differently on a field trip as opposed to in a classroom.
In a series of studies, Falk, Martin, and Balling ( 1978 ), Martin, Falk, and Balling ( 1981 ), and Balling and Falk ( Note 1) have investigated some of the en- vironmental and psychological dimensions of field trips--specifically, the role of setting novelty in affect- ing cognitive learning. This research showed that ex- tremely novel settings placed preemptive demands on the learner and thereby negatively influenced concept learning.
Current psychological theory reinforces these no- tions about setting novelty. Extensive theoretical and empirical support has been provided by Helson ( 1964 ) in the development of his adaptation level theory. Berlyne ( 1960 ) has shown that relative novelty has an effect on many different types of human behavior. Considerable animal research has highlighted the im- pact of novelty on behavior and learning ( Harlow, 1965; Thompson & Grusec, 1970; Thompson & Heron, 1954). Lubow, Rifkin, and Alek ( 1976 ) and Zelazo, Hopkins, Jacobson, and Kagan ( 1974 ) have documented similar effects in young children. J. J. Gibson's perceptual learning theory ( Gibson, 1966) contributes yet another line of evidence suggesting that behavior will vary as a function of experience. And E. Gibson ( 1969 ) reports a variety of studies in which
This research was supported in part by a grant, SED 77-18913, from the National Science Foundation. The authors wish to thank Sharon Maves, Chris Kornet, and Ann Coren for their assistance in conducting this study. A special word of thanks goes to Mr. Howard Hall and the Anne Arundel County Public School system. Address cor- respondence to Dr. John H. Falk, Smithsonian Institution, P.O. Box 28, Edgewater, MD 21037.
-22-
mere exposure to a stimulus dimension enhances discrimination along that dimension.
Studies of incidental learning and selective attention have also suggested the importance of the environment in which a learning activity takes place. Children learn a great deal about the setting or non-task relevant aspects (as defined by the teacher) of the learning situation, such as the color of the flash cards, the place where their instructor dropped her books, or the price of a rubber gorilla at the zoo. More importantly, cer tain of these irrelevant stimuli may hinder task learn ing while others may facilitate it ( Hale, Miller, & Stevenson, 1968
The Field Trip Milieu: Learning and Behavior as a Function of Contextual Events
JOHN H. FALK JOHN D. BALLING
Chesapeake Bay Center for Environmental Studies
ABSTRACT A study to assess the impact of school field trips on attitudes, behavior, and learning was conducted with 196 third and fifth grade children. Half the children went on an all-day field trip to a nature center to learn about the biology of trees; the other half were taught the same lesson outside their classroom during their regular science period. As measured by pre- and posttests, field experiences resulted in significant immediate learning and 30-day reten- tion for all groups. Observational measures revealed that stu- dent behavior varied as a function of age and environmental context. A model is proposed that relates learning and behavior to both developmental level and environmental novelty.
The field trip remains a conspicuous part of the public school routine for most elementary school children. The annual trek to the zoo, museum, nature center, or other such facility is about as predictable as the Halloween parade and the end-of-school party. On most field trips, the students are put into busses early in the morning, driven to a rather novel setting, led through some activities by a stranger, put back on the bus, and returned at the end of the day. In addition, they usually bring a bag lunch and some money to spend in the gift shop during periods of free time. In many cases, the majority of time is actually spent in transit rather than in direct participation in the lesson. It has never been determined whether such extra- activity factors and the disruption of normal school routine affect behavior during the trip activity, learn- ing of the material presented during the activity, or retention of field trip experiences.
Most research on field trips has focused on a description of either the cognitive outcomes of the ex- perience (c.f. review by Koran & Baker, 1979; Wright, 1980), or on attitude changes as a result of the ex- perience ( Bloomberg, 1929; Brady, 1972; Gottfried, 1981). Little analysis has been presented for why students might behave or learn differently on a field trip as opposed to in a classroom.
In a series of studies, Falk, Martin, and Balling ( 1978 ), Martin, Falk, and Balling ( 1981 ), and Balling and Falk ( Note 1) have investigated some of the en- vironmental and psychological dimensions of field trips--specifically, the role of setting novelty in affect- ing cognitive learning. This research showed that ex- tremely novel settings placed preemptive demands on the learner and thereby negatively influenced concept learning.
Current psychological theory reinforces these no- tions about setting novelty. Extensive theoretical and empirical support has been provided by Helson ( 1964 ) in the development of his adaptation level theory. Berlyne ( 1960 ) has shown that relative novelty has an effect on many different types of human behavior. Considerable animal research has highlighted the im- pact of novelty on behavior and learning ( Harlow, 1965; Thompson & Grusec, 1970; Thompson & Heron, 1954). Lubow, Rifkin, and Alek ( 1976 ) and Zelazo, Hopkins, Jacobson, and Kagan ( 1974 ) have documented similar effects in young children. J. J. Gibson's perceptual learning theory ( Gibson, 1966) contributes yet another line of evidence suggesting that behavior will vary as a function of experience. And E. Gibson ( 1969 ) reports a variety of studies in which
This research was supported in part by a grant, SED 77-18913, from the National Science Foundation. The authors wish to thank Sharon Maves, Chris Kornet, and Ann Coren for their assistance in conducting this study. A special word of thanks goes to Mr. Howard Hall and the Anne Arundel County Public School system. Address cor- respondence to Dr. John H. Falk, Smithsonian Institution, P.O. Box 28, Edgewater, MD 21037.
-22-
mere exposure to a stimulus dimension enhances discrimination along that dimension.
Studies of incidental learning and selective attention have also suggested the importance of the environment in which a learning activity takes place. Children learn a great deal about the setting or non-task relevant aspects (as defined by the teacher) of the learning situation, such as the color of the flash cards, the place where their instructor dropped her books, or the price of a rubber gorilla at the zoo. More importantly, cer tain of these irrelevant stimuli may hinder task learn ing while others may facilitate it ( Hale, Miller, & Stevenson, 1968
The Field Trip Milieu: Learning and Behavior as a Function of Contextual Events
JOHN H. FALK JOHN D. BALLING
Chesapeake Bay Center for Environmental Studies
ABSTRACT A study to assess the impact of school field trips on attitudes, behavior, and learning was conducted with 196 third and fifth grade children. Half the children went on an all-day field trip to a nature center to learn about the biology of trees; the other half were taught the same lesson outside their classroom during their regular science period. As measured by pre- and posttests, field experiences resulted in significant immediate learning and 30-day reten- tion for all groups. Observational measures revealed that stu- dent behavior varied as a function of age and environmental context. A model is proposed that relates learning and behavior to both developmental level and environmental novelty.
The field trip remains a conspicuous part of the public school routine for most elementary school children. The annual trek to the zoo, museum, nature center, or other such facility is about as predictable as the Halloween parade and the end-of-school party. On most field trips, the students are put into busses early in the morning, driven to a rather novel setting, led through some activities by a stranger, put back on the bus, and returned at the end of the day. In addition, they usually bring a bag lunch and some money to spend in the gift shop during periods of free time. In many cases, the majority of time is actually spent in transit rather than in direct participation in the lesson. It has never been determined whether such extra- activity factors and the disruption of normal school routine affect behavior during the trip activity, learn- ing of the material presented during the activity, or retention of field trip experiences.
Most research on field trips has focused on a description of either the cognitive outcomes of the ex- perience (c.f. review by Koran & Baker, 1979; Wright, 1980), or on attitude changes as a result of the ex- perience ( Bloomberg, 1929; Brady, 1972; Gottfried, 1981). Little analysis has been presented for why students might behave or learn differently on a field trip as opposed to in a classroom.
In a series of studies, Falk, Martin, and Balling ( 1978 ), Martin, Falk, and Balling ( 1981 ), and Balling and Falk ( Note 1) have investigated some of the en- vironmental and psychological dimensions of field trips--specifically, the role of setting novelty in affect- ing cognitive learning. This research showed that ex- tremely novel settings placed preemptive demands on the learner and thereby negatively influenced concept learning.
Current psychological theory reinforces these no- tions about setting novelty. Extensive theoretical and empirical support has been provided by Helson ( 1964 ) in the development of his adaptation level theory. Berlyne ( 1960 ) has shown that relative novelty has an effect on many different types of human behavior. Considerable animal research has highlighted the im- pact of novelty on behavior and learning ( Harlow, 1965; Thompson & Grusec, 1970; Thompson & Heron, 1954). Lubow, Rifkin, and Alek ( 1976 ) and Zelazo, Hopkins, Jacobson, and Kagan ( 1974 ) have documented similar effects in young children. J. J. Gibson's perceptual learning theory ( Gibson, 1966) contributes yet another line of evidence suggesting that behavior will vary as a function of experience. And E. Gibson ( 1969 ) reports a variety of studies in which
This research was supported in part by a grant, SED 77-18913, from the National Science Foundation. The authors wish to thank Sharon Maves, Chris Kornet, and Ann Coren for their assistance in conducting this study. A special word of thanks goes to Mr. Howard Hall and the Anne Arundel County Public School system. Address cor- respondence to Dr. John H. Falk, Smithsonian Institution, P.O. Box 28, Edgewater, MD 21037.
-22-
mere exposure to a stimulus dimension enhances discrimination along that dimension.
Studies of incidental learning and selective attention have also suggested the importance of the environment in which a learning activity takes place. Children learn a great deal about the setting or non-task relevant aspects (as defined by the teacher) of the learning situation, such as the color of the flash cards, the place where their instructor dropped her books, or the price of a rubber gorilla at the zoo. More importantly, cer tain of these irrelevant stimuli may hinder task learn ing while others may facilitate it ( Hale, Miller, & Stevenson, 1968
The Field Trip Milieu: Learning and Behavior as a Function of Contextual Events
JOHN H. FALK JOHN D. BALLING
Chesapeake Bay Center for Environmental Studies
ABSTRACT A study to assess the impact of school field trips on attitudes, behavior, and learning was conducted with 196 third and fifth grade children. Half the children went on an all-day field trip to a nature center to learn about the biology of trees; the other half were taught the same lesson outside their classroom during their regular science period. As measured by pre- and posttests, field experiences resulted in significant immediate learning and 30-day reten- tion for all groups. Observational measures revealed that stu- dent behavior varied as a function of age and environmental context. A model is proposed that relates learning and behavior to both developmental level and environmental novelty.
The field trip remains a conspicuous part of the public school routine for most elementary school children. The annual trek to the zoo, museum, nature center, or other such facility is about as predictable as the Halloween parade and the end-of-school party. On most field trips, the students are put into busses early in the morning, driven to a rather novel setting, led through some activities by a stranger, put back on the bus, and returned at the end of the day. In addition, they usually bring a bag lunch and some money to spend in the gift shop during periods of free time. In many cases, the majority of time is actually spent in transit rather than in direct participation in the lesson. It has never been determined whether such extra- activity factors and the disruption of normal school routine affect behavior during the trip activity, learn- ing of the material presented during the activity, or retention of field trip experiences.
Most research on field trips has focused on a description of either the cognitive outcomes of the ex- perience (c.f. review by Koran & Baker, 1979; Wright, 1980), or on attitude changes as a result of the ex- perience ( Bloomberg, 1929; Brady, 1972; Gottfried, 1981). Little analysis has been presented for why students might behave or learn differently on a field trip as opposed to in a classroom.
In a series of studies, Falk, Martin, and Balling ( 1978 ), Martin, Falk, and Balling ( 1981 ), and Balling and Falk ( Note 1) have investigated some of the en- vironmental and psychological dimensions of field trips--specifically, the role of setting novelty in affect- ing cognitive learning. This research showed that ex- tremely novel settings placed preemptive demands on the learner and thereby negatively influenced concept learning.
Current psychological theory reinforces these no- tions about setting novelty. Extensive theoretical and empirical support has been provided by Helson ( 1964 ) in the development of his adaptation level theory. Berlyne ( 1960 ) has shown that relative novelty has an effect on many different types of human behavior. Considerable animal research has highlighted the im- pact of novelty on behavior and learning ( Harlow, 1965; Thompson & Grusec, 1970; Thompson & Heron, 1954). Lubow, Rifkin, and Alek ( 1976 ) and Zelazo, Hopkins, Jacobson, and Kagan ( 1974 ) have documented similar effects in young children. J. J. Gibson's perceptual learning theory ( Gibson, 1966) contributes yet another line of evidence suggesting that behavior will vary as a function of experience. And E. Gibson ( 1969 ) reports a variety of studies in which
This research was supported in part by a grant, SED 77-18913, from the National Science Foundation. The authors wish to thank Sharon Maves, Chris Kornet, and Ann Coren for their assistance in conducting this study. A special word of thanks goes to Mr. Howard Hall and the Anne Arundel County Public School system. Address cor- respondence to Dr. John H. Falk, Smithsonian Institution, P.O. Box 28, Edgewater, MD 21037.
-22-
mere exposure to a stimulus dimension enhances discrimination along that dimension.
Studies of incidental learning and selective attention have also suggested the importance of the environment in which a learning activity takes place. Children learn a great deal about the setting or non-task relevant aspects (as defined by the teacher) of the learning situation, such as the color of the flash cards, the place where their instructor dropped her books, or the price of a rubber gorilla at the zoo. More importantly, cer tain of these irrelevant stimuli may hinder task learn ing while others may facilitate it ( Hale, Miller, & Stevenson, 1968
The Field Trip Milieu: Learning and Behavior as a Function of Contextual Events
JOHN H. FALK JOHN D. BALLING
Chesapeake Bay Center for Environmental Studies
ABSTRACT A study to assess the impact of school field trips on attitudes, behavior, and learning was conducted with 196 third and fifth grade children. Half the children went on an all-day field trip to a nature center to learn about the biology of trees; the other half were taught the same lesson outside their classroom during their regular science period. As measured by pre- and posttests, field experiences resulted in significant immediate learning and 30-day reten- tion for all groups. Observational measures revealed that stu- dent behavior varied as a function of age and environmental context. A model is proposed that relates learning and behavior to both developmental level and environmental novelty.
The field trip remains a conspicuous part of the public school routine for most elementary school children. The annual trek to the zoo, museum, nature center, or other such facility is about as predictable as the Halloween parade and the end-of-school party. On most field trips, the students are put into busses early in the morning, driven to a rather novel setting, led through some activities by a stranger, put back on the bus, and returned at the end of the day. In addition, they usually bring a bag lunch and some money to spend in the gift shop during periods of free time. In many cases, the majority of time is actually spent in transit rather than in direct participation in the lesson. It has never been determined whether such extra- activity factors and the disruption of normal school routine affect behavior during the trip activity, learn- ing of the material presented during the activity, or retention of field trip experiences.
Most research on field trips has focused on a description of either the cognitive outcomes of the ex- perience (c.f. review by Koran & Baker, 1979; Wright, 1980), or on attitude changes as a result of the ex- perience ( Bloomberg, 1929; Brady, 1972; Gottfried, 1981). Little analysis has been presented for why students might behave or learn differently on a field trip as opposed to in a classroom.
In a series of studies, Falk, Martin, and Balling ( 1978 ), Martin, Falk, and Balling ( 1981 ), and Balling and Falk ( Note 1) have investigated some of the en- vironmental and psychological dimensions of field trips--specifically, the role of setting novelty in affect- ing cognitive learning. This research showed that ex- tremely novel settings placed preemptive demands on the learner and thereby negatively influenced concept learning.
Current psychological theory reinforces these no- tions about setting novelty. Extensive theoretical and empirical support has been provided by Helson ( 1964 ) in the development of his adaptation level theory. Berlyne ( 1960 ) has shown that relative novelty has an effect on many different types of human behavior. Considerable animal research has highlighted the im- pact of novelty on behavior and learning ( Harlow, 1965; Thompson & Grusec, 1970; Thompson & Heron, 1954). Lubow, Rifkin, and Alek ( 1976 ) and Zelazo, Hopkins, Jacobson, and Kagan ( 1974 ) have documented similar effects in young children. J. J. Gibson's perceptual learning theory ( Gibson, 1966) contributes yet another line of evidence suggesting that behavior will vary as a function of experience. And E. Gibson ( 1969 ) reports a variety of studies in which
This research was supported in part by a grant, SED 77-18913, from the National Science Foundation. The authors wish to thank Sharon Maves, Chris Kornet, and Ann Coren for their assistance in conducting this study. A special word of thanks goes to Mr. Howard Hall and the Anne Arundel County Public School system. Address cor- respondence to Dr. John H. Falk, Smithsonian Institution, P.O. Box 28, Edgewater, MD 21037.
-22-
mere exposure to a stimulus dimension enhances discrimination along that dimension.
Studies of incidental learning and selective attention have also suggested the importance of the environment in which a learning activity takes place. Children learn a great deal about the setting or non-task relevant aspects (as defined by the teacher) of the learning situation, such as the color of the flash cards, the place where their instructor dropped her books, or the price of a rubber gorilla at the zoo. More importantly, cer tain of these irrelevant stimuli may hinder task learn ing while others may facilitate it ( Hale, Miller, & Stevenson, 1968
The Field Trip Milieu: Learning and Behavior as a Function of Contextual Events
JOHN H. FALK JOHN D. BALLING
Chesapeake Bay Center for Environmental Studies
ABSTRACT A study to assess the impact of school field trips on attitudes, behavior, and learning was conducted with 196 third and fifth grade children. Half the children went on an all-day field trip to a nature center to learn about the biology of trees; the other half were taught the same lesson outside their classroom during their regular science period. As measured by pre- and posttests, field experiences resulted in significant immediate learning and 30-day reten- tion for all groups. Observational measures revealed that stu- dent behavior varied as a function of age and environmental context. A model is proposed that relates learning and behavior to both developmental level and environmental novelty.
The field trip remains a conspicuous part of the public school routine for most elementary school children. The annual trek to the zoo, museum, nature center, or other such facility is about as predictable as the Halloween parade and the end-of-school party. On most field trips, the students are put into busses early in the morning, driven to a rather novel setting, led through some activities by a stranger, put back on the bus, and returned at the end of the day. In addition, they usually bring a bag lunch and some money to spend in the gift shop during periods of free time. In many cases, the majority of time is actually spent in transit rather than in direct participation in the lesson. It has never been determined whether such extra- activity factors and the disruption of normal school routine affect behavior during the trip activity, learn- ing of the material presented during the activity, or retention of field trip experiences.
Most research on field trips has focused on a description of either the cognitive outcomes of the ex- perience (c.f. review by Koran & Baker, 1979; Wright, 1980), or on attitude changes as a result of the ex- perience ( Bloomberg, 1929; Brady, 1972; Gottfried, 1981). Little analysis has been presented for why students might behave or learn differently on a field trip as opposed to in a classroom.
In a series of studies, Falk, Martin, and Balling ( 1978 ), Martin, Falk, and Balling ( 1981 ), and Balling and Falk ( Note 1) have investigated some of the en- vironmental and psychological dimensions of field trips--specifically, the role of setting novelty in affect- ing cognitive learning. This research showed that ex- tremely novel settings placed preemptive demands on the learner and thereby negatively influenced concept learning.
Current psychological theory reinforces these no- tions about setting novelty. Extensive theoretical and empirical support has been provided by Helson ( 1964 ) in the development of his adaptation level theory. Berlyne ( 1960 ) has shown that relative novelty has an effect on many different types of human behavior. Considerable animal research has highlighted the im- pact of novelty on behavior and learning ( Harlow, 1965; Thompson & Grusec, 1970; Thompson & Heron, 1954). Lubow, Rifkin, and Alek ( 1976 ) and Zelazo, Hopkins, Jacobson, and Kagan ( 1974 ) have documented similar effects in young children. J. J. Gibson's perceptual learning theory ( Gibson, 1966) contributes yet another line of evidence suggesting that behavior will vary as a function of experience. And E. Gibson ( 1969 ) reports a variety of studies in which
This research was supported in part by a grant, SED 77-18913, from the National Science Foundation. The authors wish to thank Sharon Maves, Chris Kornet, and Ann Coren for their assistance in conducting this study. A special word of thanks goes to Mr. Howard Hall and the Anne Arundel County Public School system. Address cor- respondence to Dr. John H. Falk, Smithsonian Institution, P.O. Box 28, Edgewater, MD 21037.
-22-
mere exposure to a stimulus dimension enhances discrimination along that dimension.
Studies of incidental learning and selective attention have also suggested the importance of the environment in which a learning activity takes place. Children learn a great deal about the setting or non-task relevant aspects (as defined by the teacher) of the learning situation, such as the color of the flash cards, the place where their instructor dropped her books, or the price of a rubber gorilla at the zoo. More importantly, cer tain of these irrelevant stimuli may hinder task learn ing while others may facilitate it ( Hale, Miller, & Stevenson, 1968)
May 18, 2010 (Feild Trip) (8 hours)
8:45am- arrive at school
9:05 am- students start filing into the classroom, very excited about the trip
9:10 am- find my group of students that I am in charge of
9:15 am- led studnets to the bus
10:00 am- arrived at the West Valley Outdoor Learning Center
10:05 am- Introduced to our teachers for the day and went over iteneray
10:15 am- Disscussion about what we have been learning about Native Americans
10:30 am- Head outside for the first station
10:35 am- Head out to the pond where we are told that we are going to be fishing like the Native Americans. (I got soaking wet from the kids!)
11:00 am- Head over to the archary station
11:05 am- Told that we are going to be hunting the way that the NA did, with bows and arrows (100% safe I assure you!)
12:00 pm- Head over to the garden center
12:05 pm- Told a folk tale about three sisters: corn, bean and squash. The kids then draw and color their own version of what they think the three sisters looked like and recieved beans to plant on their own.
12:30 pm: Time for lunch and a break
1:00 pm- Clean up lunch and head to the WVOLC classroom
1:10 pm- Kids are asked to make their own land based on different senarios
1:20 pm kids present and are given a different senario that they have to impliment into their new land.
1:30 pm-Kids are instucted that there is one more station that they are going to visit.
1:35 pm- kids arrive at the Teepee and are told an old indian folk tale.
2:00 pm- head back to the WVOLC classroom for the last time.
2:05 pm- kids make their very own NA game that the kids would have played to pass the time:
2:15 pm- board the bus back to Ponderosa
3:00pm- Arrive back to the school and have kids write down their experiances from the trip.
3:10pm Dissmissed
Ponderosa Reflections 5/18/2010
If I had it my way we would have feild trips everyday. I found that the students were actualy retaining the information that was being given to them in the classroom. When the teacher was asking my students in particular different questions pertaining to the Native Americans they were answering them. More importiantly the students labled as "problimatic" were participating and answering questions, something they usualy don't do in the classroom.
I agree with the article that states that feild trips can effect the cognative learning plus add a motivation for learning. I also noted that our feild trip did exactly what they article said feild trips should do/be and that is to be incorporated into a unit lesson plan. We have spent the last month or so talking about the Native Americans of the Northwest and to be able to go to the WVOLC was a great way to close up the unit.
Most educators are familiar with what has become a childhood ritual—the field trip. Taking youth to parks, school camps, nature centers, and other outdoor settings provides an important contribution to the learning process (See Figure 1). Researchers have documented the cognitive and affective benefits of field trips, including increased motivation for learning (Kern and Carpenter, 1984), a more positive attitude toward science and environmental concepts (Bitgood, 1989), and the acquisition of knowledge and skills (Mackenzie and White, 1981). Further, field trips can stimulate interest for natural resource-related careers and result in an improved attitude toward the site visited (Knapp, 2000). But not all field trips result in these benefits. A field trip can easily turn into nothing more than a day off from school. This fact sheet explains how to maximize learning during the field trip to ensure that students gain its cognitive and affective benefits.
1. Ensure that the Field Trip Is an Integral Part of the Broader Curriculum
Too often, field trips are isolated from the rest of the school curriculum. Research, however, has shown that there is less transfer of learning and less meaning when the field trip is not related to classroom teaching (Ferry, 1995). The field trip should be integrated into the broader instructional program and be used only when it is the most effective and efficient procedure for fulfilling the learning objectives. When working within the formal education setting, make sure field trips are relevant to the school's curriculum and that they support state education standards and current reform efforts.
Figure 1.
Field trips provide youth with new experiences, like walking across a beaver dam.
Florida's Next Generation Sunshine State Standards provide a statewide guide to curriculum in public schools. Of course science standards are readily met on natural resource field trips, but it is also possible to develop a natural resource-focused field program that helps teachers meet standards in language arts, mathematics, and social studies. For example, a trip to a nature center for fourth-grade students could include an exploration of the forest ecosystem, collecting impressions to write a story, and calculating how many insects might be in a rotting log. The trip could then address the following standards:
SC.4.L.17.2: Explain that animals, including humans, cannot make their own food and that when animals eat plants or other animals, the energy stored in the food source is passed to them.
LA.4.4.2.1: Write in a variety of informational/expository forms.
MA.4.A.6.6: Estimate and describe reasonableness of estimates; determine the appropriateness of an estimate versus an exact answer.
2. Integrate the Field Trip into an Instructional Unit
Orion (1993) offers a three-part model that can be used to integrate field trips into the curriculum. Each part is a structured, independent learning unit, yet each links naturally to the next part of the model. The first part, the preparatory unit, prepares students for the field trip with targeted learning activities—usually incorporating some “hands-on” tasks. Learners might work with materials and equipment that will be used in the field and gain the basic concepts and skills necessary for the completion of field activities.
The field trip is the second and central part of the model. It serves as a concrete bridge toward more abstract learning levels. Making the field trip the central part of the instructional program, rather than using it as a summary or enrichment activity, provides the concretization learners need to move on to higher levels of cognitive learning when they return from the field.
The third part of Orion's model, the summary unit, includes more complex and abstract concepts, aiming toward helping learners to use their field trip learning and to transfer it to new situations. This component is usually conducted in the classroom.
While it may appear simple and intuitive at first glance, in fact this model advocates a significant departure from the typical stand-alone field trip. By including pre- and post-trip elements, the teacher becomes involved in the instruction of the field trip concepts, and students are more likely to make connections to other topics in the curriculum.
3. Familiarize Students with the Field Trip Site and Trip Expectations
The relative novelty or familiarity of the field trip setting affects learning. Settings that are too novel cause fear and nervousness; settings that are too familiar cause boredom, fatigue, and diversionary activities (Falk and Balling, 1980). Students learn best in a moderately novel field trip setting. It's best to familiarize them first by showing slides or a video of the field trip site and locating the field trip area and route on a map. Educators can also provide students with an itinerary of activities and details regarding the type of work they will be expected to do at each learning station, possible weather conditions, safety hazards and precautions, location of restrooms, and lunch or snacks (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Water quality testing equipment can be introduced before the trip to make more efficient use of time in the field.
Staff at the field trip site can provide teachers with pre-trip materials, maps, and resources that can help teachers prepare students for the field experience. In addition to suggesting content-based activities that would introduce topics, vocabulary, and concepts (see section 2), staff might provide a map of the route the bus could take and a map of the facility's trails that will orient students to the site. Teachers may be able to provide a slide show of last year's field trip, or readings from those students' reports. A letter to parents is another strategy to prepare youth for the upcoming field trip. It alerts parents to the event and encourages them to make sure students have appropriate clothing and necessary equipment. If the bus route passes an area of interest, such as a river, a former wildfire site, or a wetland, teachers may be able to point out these landmarks as students make observations.
4. Design the Field Trip as a Learning Experience Based on Educational Theory
The main instructional strategy of the field trip should be hands-on experience, focusing on activities that cannot be conducted in the classroom or laboratory (Orion, 1993). Rather than passively absorbing information through guided tours or participating in simulations, students should be actively constructing knowledge through their interactions with the environment. This strategy relies on a process-oriented rather than a content-oriented approach, incorporating activities such as observing, identifying, measuring, and comparing. Instructors should build in opportunities for structured exploration, such as scavenger hunts or sensory awareness activities. Further, the actual site of the field trip should be conducive to learning. Terrain that is too difficult, learning stations that are separated by great distances, extreme weather conditions, and constant pestering by mosquitoes make learning difficult.
The "stop and talk" approach many naturalists use is not sufficiently engaging for young learners. Consider asking students to find examples of insect feeding, three different shades of green, or animal homes. Readily available activities from Project Learning Tree, Project WET, and Project WILD offer ideas for outdoor games and exercises that bring concepts like camouflage, watershed, and population growth to life (Figure 3 ).
Figure 3.
Youth at this Environmental Education Center play a game to reinforce the concept of energy flow.
5. Provide Students with Multiple Exposures to and Experience in Natural Settings
Some students, often those from urban backgrounds, arrive at the park or natural area with negative preconceptions and fears that interfere with the effectiveness of the field trip program (Bixler, Carlisle, Hammitt, and Floyd, 1994). These students need repeated positive exposures to natural settings to lower the novelty of these settings and help them “unlearn” misconceptions. Direct experiences can be planned to counter perceived threats, such as encountering dirt and germs, getting lost, and being attacked by venomous snakes or ravenous wolves. When possible, field trips should be provided to young children (as young as preschool and kindergarten) to prevent their developing these fears in the first place. With enough exposure and support, these students may be able to introduce their families to positive encounters with nature.
With the rising cost of bus transportation for field trips, it can be difficult for teachers to make multiple trips to natural settings. It may be wise to help teachers develop natural areas on their school sites. Also called "outdoor classrooms" and "land labs," these nearby locations can give teachers a place to conduct a variety of environmental activities. Similarly, a city park or cemetery can also provide areas to explore insects, plants, soil, and trees. The more comfortable youth become with these familiar, nearby locations, the better they will be able to appreciate more wild environments.
Figure 4.
What better way to explore aquatic organisms than to wade in after them?
Summary
Field trips can be a valuable method of instruction, providing students with important cognitive and affective benefits. To help ensure that students actually gain these potential benefits, instructors must consider the factors that influence the educational effectiveness of field trips. They must integrate the field trip into the curriculum and align it with national and state education standards using pre- and post-visit activities; familiarize students with the field trip site and trip expectations; base the field trip on solid educational theory; and provide students with multiple experiences in natural settings. Extension agents, club leaders, agency staff, and classroom teachers aware of the importance of these factors can collectively plan and implement field trips that achieve optimal cognitive and effect results, as well as provide youth with the opportunities to enjoy and explore an outdoor environment.
References
Bitgood, S. (1989). School field trips: An overview. Visitor Behavior, 4(2), 3-6.
Bixler, R., C. Carlisle, W. Hammitt, and M. Floyd. (1994). Observed fears and discomfort among urban students on field trips to wildland areas. The Journal of Environmental Education, 26(1), 24-33.
Falk, J. and J. Balling. (1980). The school field trip: Where you go makes a difference. Science and Children, 6-8.
Ferry, B. (1995). Enhancing environmental experiences through effective partnerships among teacher educators, field study centers, and schools. The Journal of Experiential Education, 18(3), 133-137.
Kern, E. and J. Carpenter. (1984). Enhancement of student values, interests, and attitudes in earth science through a field-oriented approach. Journal of Geological Education, 32, 299-305.
Knapp, D. (2000). Memorable experiences of a science field trip. School Science and Mathematics, 11(2), 65-71.
Mackenzie, A. and R. White. (April 1981). Fieldwork in geography and long-term memory structures. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association, Los Angeles, CA.
Orion, N. (1993). A model for the development and implementation of field trips as an integral part of the science curriculum. School Science and Mathematics, 93(6), 325-331.
Footnotes
1.
This document is FOR105, one of a series of the School of Forest Resources and Conservation Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Original publication date July 2002. Revised October 2008. Visit the EDIS Web Site at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu.
2.
Julie Ernst, Assistant Professor at University of Minnesota-Duluth; and Martha C. Monroe, Professor, School of Forest Resources and Conservation, Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611.
The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) is an Equal Opportunity Institution authorized to provide research, educational information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function with non-discrimination with respect to race, creed, color, religion, age, disability, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, national origin, political opinions or affiliations. For more information on obtaining other extension publications, contact your county Cooperative Extension service.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida, IFAS, Florida A. & M. University Cooperative Extension Program, and Boards of County Commissioners Cooperating. Millie Ferrer-Chancy, Interim Dean.
Ponderosa Reflections 5/24/2010
My reflection this week is on research papers in elementary I think that having the students do research papers in elementary school is a fantastic way for students to have the chance to discover the world around them in a way that works for them. To be able to ask their questions they want answered and be able to go and find the answers for themselves is a great thing in my opinion. I remember doing research papers in elementary school and I remember thinking that it was so cool to be able to do something like that. Also this is a great time to teach about two very different subjects: researching in books and researching online. This is also a great way to incorporate technology into the classroom. This is also something that all schools can do wither they are a wealthy school district or a poorer school district. They are just going to be using different materials to do their research.
This publication is based on work supported by the Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI), Department of Education, under Contract Number RJ96006401. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of OERI, the U.S. Department of Education, or any other agency of the U.S. Government.
About This Series This is another edition in a series of “Themes in Education” booklets produced by the Northeast and Islands Regional Educational Laboratory at Brown University. The topics addressed by these booklets are generated in response to requests for information from practitioners, parents, and other members of the public. Each booklet aims to present a balanced view of its topic and a glimpse of how the approach works in schools. Some discussions may lend themselves to a state-by-state summary; others are illustrated by a series of vignettes that demonstrate the central concepts. For topics that are more global in nature, the booklet will cite a few illustrations within the region or nationally. The goal of this series is to provide resources containing useful information on education-related topics of interest. Connections to other relevant resources, selected current references, and ways to obtain more information are provided in each booklet.
INTRODUCTION Action research is one of those terms that we hear quite often in today’s educational circles. But just what does it mean? If you ask three people to define action research, you may find yourself with three different responses. Typically, action research is undertaken in a school setting. It is a reflective process that allows for inquiry and discussion as components of the “research.” Often, action research is a collaborative activity among colleagues searching for solutions to everyday, real problems experienced in schools, or looking for ways to improve instruction and increase student achievement. Rather than dealing with the theoretical, action research allows practitioners to address those concerns that are closest to them, ones over which they can exhibit some influence and make change. Practitioners are responsible for making more and more decisions in the operations of schools, and they are being held publicly accountable for student achievement results. The process of action research assists educators in assessing needs, documenting the steps of inquiry, analyzing data, and making informed decisions that can lead to desired outcomes. This booklet discusses several types of action research, its history, and a process that may be used to engage educators in action research. Two stories from the field, written by teachers about their own reflections on the process, are given as illustrations of action research. Action Research 1 What is Action Research? Action research is a process in which participants examine their own educational practice systematically and carefully, using the techniques of research. It is based on the following assumptions: • Teachers and principals work best on problems they have identified for themselves • Teachers and principals become more effective when encouraged to examine and assess their own work and then consider ways of working differently • Teachers and principals help each other by working collaboratively • Working with colleagues helps teachers and principals in their professional development Although there are many types of research that may be undertaken, action research specifically refers to a disciplined inquiry done by a teacher with the intent that the research will inform and change his or her practices in the future. This research is carried out within the context of the teacher’s environment—that is, with the students and at the school in which the teacher works—on questions that deal with educational matters at hand. While people who call for greater professionalization say (Watts, 1985, p. 118) THEMES IN EDUCATION 2 that teachers should be constantly researching and educating themselves about their area of expertise, this is different from the study of more educational questions that arise from the practice of teaching. Implicit in the term action research is the idea that teachers will begin a cycle of posing questions, gathering data, reflection, and deciding on a course of action. When these decisions begin to change the school environment, a different set of circumstances appears with different problems posed, which require a new look. Indeed, many action research projects are started with a particular problem to solve, whose solution leads into other areas of study. While a teacher may work alone on these studies, it is also common for a number of teachers to collaborate on a problem, as well as enlist support and guidance from administrators, university scholars, and others. At times, whole schools may decide to tackle a school-wide study to address a common issue, or join with others to look at district-wide issues. What is Not Action Research? Action research is not what usually comes to mind when we hear the word “research.” Action research is not a library project where we learn more about a topic that interests us. It is not problem-solving in the sense of trying to find out what is wrong, but rather a quest for knowledge about how to improve. Action research is not about doing research on or about people, or finding all available information on a topic looking for the correct Action Research 3 answers. It involves people working to improve their skills, techniques, and strategies. Action research is not about learning why we do certain things, but rather how we can do things better. It is about how we can change our instruction to impact students. Types of Action Research Part of the confusion we find when we hear the term “action research” is that there are different types of action research depending upon the participants involved. A plan of research can involve a single teacher investigating an issue in his or her classroom, a group of teachers working on a common problem, or a team of teachers and others focusing on a school- or district-wide issue. Individual teacher research usually focuses on a single issue in the classroom. The teacher may be seeking solutions to problems of classroom management, instructional strategies, use of materials, or student learning. Teachers may have support of their supervisor or principal, an instructor for a course they are taking, or parents. The problem is one that the teacher believes is evident in his or her classroom and one that can be addressed on an individual basis. The research may then be such that the teacher collects data or may involve looking at student participation. One of the drawbacks of individual research is that it may not be shared with others unless the teacher chooses to present findings at a faculty meeting, make a formal presentation at a conference, or submit written material to a listserv, journal, or newsletter. It is possible THEMES IN EDUCATION 4 for several teachers to be working concurrently on the same problem with no knowledge of the work of others. Collaborative action research may include as few as two teachers or a group of several teachers and others interested in addressing a classroom or department issue. This issue may involve one classroom or a common problem shared by many classrooms. These teachers may be supported by individuals outside of the school, such as a university or community partner. The LAB at Brown has just such a relationship with several teams. School-wide research focuses on issues common to all. For example, a school may have a concern about the lack of parental involvement in activities, and is looking for a way to reach more parents to involve them in meaningful ways. Or, the school may be looking to address its organizational and decision-making structures. Teams of staff from the school work together to narrow the question, gather and analyze the data, and decide on a plan of action. An example of action research for a school could be to examine their state test scores to identify areas that need improvement, and then determine a plan of action to improve student performance. Team work and individual contributions to the whole are very important, and it may be that problem points arise as the team strives to develop a process and make commitments to each other. When these obstacles are overcome, there will be a sense of ownership and accomplishment in the results that come from this school-wide effort. Action Research 5 District-wide research is far more complex and utilizes more resources, but the rewards can be great. Issues can be organizational, community-based, performance-based, or processes for decision-making. A district may choose to address a problem common to several schools or one of organizational management. Downsides are the documentation requirements (communication) to keep everyone in the loop, and the ability to keep the process in motion. Collecting data from all participants needs a commitment from staff to do their fair share and to meet agreed-upon deadlines for assignments. On the positive side, real school reform and change can take hold based on a common understanding through inquiry. The involvement of multiple constituent groups can lend energy to the process and create an environment of genuine stakeholders. THEMES IN EDUCATION 6 Figure 1. Types of action research Focus Possible support needed Potential impact Side effects Individual teacher research Collaborative action research School-wide action research District-wide action research Single classroom issue Coach/mentor Access to technology Assistance with data organization and analysis Curriculum Instruction Assessment Practice informed by data Information not always shared Single classroom or several classrooms with common issue Substitute teachers Release time Close link with administrators Curriculum Instruction Assessment Policy Improved collegiality Formation of partnerships School issue, problem, or area of collective interest School commitment Leadership Communication External partners Potential to impact school restructuring and change Policy Parent involvement Evaluation of programs Improved collegiality, collaboration, and communication Team building Disagreements on process District issue Organizational structures District commitment Facilitator Recorder Communication External partners Allocation of resources Professional development activities Organizational structures Policy Improved collegiality, collaboration, and communication Team building Disagreements on process Shared vision Action Research 7 A Brief History of Action Research The idea of using research in a “natural” setting to change the way that the researcher interacts with that setting can be traced back to Kurt Lewin, a social psychologist and educator whose work on action research was developed throughout the 1940s in the United States. “Lewin is credited with coining the term ‘action research’ to describe work that did not separate the investigation from the action needed to solve the problem” (McFarland & Stansell, 1993, p. 14). Topics chosen for his study related directly to the context of the issue. His process was cyclical, involving a “non-linear pattern of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting on the changes in the social situations” (Noffke & Stevenson, 1995, p. 2). Stephen Corey at Teachers College at Columbia University was among the first to use action research in the field of education. He believed that the scientific method in education would bring about change because educators would be involved in both the research and the application of information. Corey summed up much of the thought behind this fledgling branch of inquiry. We are convinced that the disposition to study…the consequences of our own teaching is more likely to change and improve our practices than is reading about what someone else has discovered of his teaching. (Corey, 1953, p. 70) THEMES IN EDUCATION 8 Corey believed that the value of action research is in the change that occurs in everyday practice rather than the generalization to a broader audience. He saw the need for teachers and researchers to work together. However, in the mid 1950s, action research was attacked as unscientific, little more than common sense, and the work of amateurs (McFarland & Stansell, 1993, p. 15). Interest in action research waned over the next few years as experiments with research designs and quantitative data collection became the norm. By the 1970s we saw again the emergence of action research. Education practitioners questioned the applicability of scientific research designs and methodologies as a means to solve education issues. The results of many of these federally funded projects were seen as theoretical, not grounded in practice. The practice of action research is again visible and seen to hold great value. Over time, the definition has taken on many meanings. It is now often seen as a tool for professional development, bringing a greater focus on the teacher than before (Noffke & Stevenson, 1995). It is increasingly becoming a tool for school reform, as its very individual focus allows for a new engagement in educational change. Action research emphasizes the involvement of teachers in problems in their own classrooms and has as its primary goal the in-service training and development of the teacher rather than the acquisition of general knowledge in the field of education. (Borg, 1965, p. 313) Action Research 9 Steps in Action Research Within all the definitions of action research, there are four basic themes: empowerment of participants, collaboration through participation, acquisition of knowledge, and social change. In conducting action research, we structure routines for continuous confrontation with data on the health of a school community. These routines are loosely guided by movement through five phases of inquiry: Figure 2. Action Research Cycle 1. Identification of problem area 2. Collection and organization of data 3. Interpretation of data 4. Action based on data 5. Reflection IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM GATHER DATA INTERPRET DATA NEXT STEPS EVALUATE RESULTS ACT ON EVIDENCE THEMES IN EDUCATION 10 IDENTIFY A PROBLEM AREA Teachers often have several questions they wish to investigate; however, it is important to limit the question to one that is meaningful and doable in the confines of their daily work. Careful planning at this first stage will limit false starts and frustrations. There are several criteria to consider before investing the time and effort in “researching” a problem. The question should An important guideline in choosing a question is to ask if it is something over which the teacher has influence. Is it something of interest and worth the time and effort that will be spent? Sometimes there is a discrete problem that is readily identifiable. Or, the problem to be studied may come from a feeling of discomfort or tension in the classroom. For example, a teacher may be using the latest fashionable teaching strategy, yet not really knowing or understanding what or how kids are learning. • be a higher-order question—not a yes/no • be stated in common language, avoiding jargon • be concise • be meaningful • not already have an answer Action Research 11 GATHER DATA The collection of data is an important step in deciding what action needs to be taken. Multiple sources of data are used to better understand the scope of happenings in the classroom or school. There are many vehicles for collection of data: Select the data that are most appropriate for the issue being researched. Are the data easy to collect? Are there sources readily available for use? How structured and systematic will the collection be? Use at least three sources (triangulation) of data for the basis of actions. Organize the data in a way that makes it useful to identify trends and themes. Data can be arranged by gender, classroom, grade level, school, etc. journals individual files logs of meetings videotapes case studies surveys records – tests, report cards, attendance self-assessment samples of student work, projects, performances interviews portfolios diaries field notes audio tapes photos memos questionnaires focus groups anecdotal records checklists THEMES IN EDUCATION 12 INTERPRET DATA Analyze and identify major themes. Depending upon the question, teachers may wish to use classroom data, individual data, or subgroup data. Some of the data are quantifiable and can be analyzed without the use of statistics or technical assistance. Other data, such as opinions, attitudes, or checklists, may be summarized in table form. Data that are not quantifiable can be reviewed holistically and important elements or themes can be noted. ACT ON EVIDENCE Using the information from the data collection and review of current literature, design a plan of action that will allow you to make a change and to study that change. It is important that only one variable be altered. As with any experiment, if several changes are made at once, it will be difficult to determine which action is responsible for the outcome. While the new technique is being implemented, continue to document and collect data on performance. EVALUATE RESULTS Assess the effects of the intervention to determine if improvement has occurred. If there is improvement, do the data clearly provide the supporting evidence? If no, what changes can be made to the actions to elicit better results? Action Research 13 NEXT STEPS As a result of the action research project, identify additional questions raised by the data and plan for additional improvements, revisions, and next steps. Benefits of Action Research Action research can be a worthwhile pursuit for educators for a number of reasons. Foremost among these is simply the desire to know more. Good teachers are, after all, themselves students, and often look for ways to expand upon their existing knowledge. Focus on school issue, problem, or area of collective interest Research done with the teacher’s students, in a setting with which the teacher is familiar, helps to confer relevance and validity to a disciplined study. Often, academic research is seen as disconnected from the daily lives of educators. While this might not always be true, it can be very helpful for teachers to pick up threads suggested in academic circles, and weave them in to their own classroom. It is also comforting for parents, or education administrators outside of the school, to know that a teacher is not just blindly following what the latest study seems to suggest, but is transforming the knowledge into something meaningful. THEMES IN EDUCATION 14 Form of teacher professional development Research and reflection allow teachers to grow and gain confidence in their work. Action research projects influence thinking skills, sense of efficacy, willingness to share and communicate, and attitudes toward the process of change. Through action research, teachers learn about themselves, their students, their colleagues, and can determine ways to continually improve. Collegial interactions Isolation is one of the downsides of teaching. Teachers are often the sole adult in a room of children, and have little or no time scheduled for professional conversations with others. Action research in pairs or by teams of teachers allows time to talk with others about teaching and teaching strategies. By working on these teams, teachers must describe their own teaching styles and strategies and share their thoughts with others. As a team they examine various instructional strategies, learning activities, and curricular materials used in the classroom. Through these discussions with colleagues they develop stronger relationships. As the practice of action research becomes part of the school culture, we see increased sharing and collaboration across departments, disciplines, grade levels, and schools. Action Research 15 Potential to impact school change As teachers get into action research, they are more apt to look at questions that address school and district concerns rather than questions that affect the individual teacher. This process creates new patterns of collegiality, communication, and sharing. Contributions to the body of knowledge about teaching and learning may also result. Development of priorities for school-wide planning and assessment efforts arise from inquiry with potential to motivate change for improvement’s sake. Reflect on own practice Opportunities for teachers to evaluate themselves in schools are often few, and usually happen only in an informal manner. Action research can serve as a chance to really take a look at one’s own teaching in a structured manner. While the focus of action research is usually the students, educators can also investigate what effect their teaching is having on their students, how they could work better with other teachers, or ways of changing the whole school for the better. Conversations can take on a different focus from attempting to “fix” to arriving at understanding. Improved communications Team work within the school or district brings individuals together for a shared purpose. Educators involved in action research become more flexible in their thinking and more open to new ideas (Pine, 1981). Studies by Little (1981) suggest positive changes in patterns of collegiality, communication, and networking. THEMES IN EDUCATION 16 Stories from the Field Rebecca Wisniewski Charlotte M. Murkland School Lowell, Massachusetts When I sat down to write about my experience with action research, I began by looking over my team’s final report, my meeting notes, and my e-mails to our consultant from the LAB at Brown. I am glad I did. Doing action research can be a little like labor. You forget what it was really like. The notes and e-mails reminded me of the messiness of our meetings and our struggle to pare down the project into something manageable. I am the Title I Resource Teacher for the Charlotte M. Murkland School in Lowell, Massachusetts. Our school is in the inner city and has about 530 students in pre-school to fourth grade. The Murkland has a Khmer bilingual strand and over 60% of our students are from homes in which English is not spoken. Our poverty rate is one of the highest in the city, at about 89%-92%, depending on the month. The Murkland is a new building with an experienced, stable staff that formed when the school was built six years ago. Although our school offers us many challenges, on most days, most of us are glad to be at the Murkland. “Do you like research?” asked my Title I facilitator, Eileen Skovholt. “Yes,” I said, “I loved research in college.” With those words I was on my way to becoming a teacher– Action Research 17 researcher. That conversation led to a multidisciplinary team, made up of our vice principal, the city-wide Title I facilitator, an ESL teacher, a bilingual teacher, a special education teacher, and myself, being asked to attend the LAB Institute on Cultural and Linguistic Diversity: Problem Solving through Action Research, held at Brown University. At the conference, our group was taken with the idea that we could actually begin to conduct inquiries into our own teaching. We have so often felt pulled in one direction or another by the swing of the educational pendulum. By doing our own action research we could gain a better perspective into our own teaching and the students’ learning. The changes that we would make in our teaching would come out of our own work. Perhaps most importantly, we would be working as a community of learners. During the conference, we began to talk about a group of bilingual Cambodian students in our third and fourth grades who were non-readers. Most of them were new to our school. They would, of course, be referred to special education for testing. The truth is, we see students such as these just about every year. At this age, time is short and the testing process is time-consuming. Even when the testing is completed, we still need to develop a program for them. Action research would provide us the opportunity to try different strategies and see which ones actually brought about significant change for our students. After visiting Brown, we were invited to write the grant that led to this project. Several of us had never worked together before. The discussion that occurred as we were writing the grant generated many ideas. As we wrote the THEMES IN EDUCATION 18 grant, there was a sense of common goals and a feeling that what we were about to do was important to our school and to our own personal growth. Our Approach Our research question became, “What can we provide for effective reading instruction for third- and fourth-grade English language learners who are limited readers or nonreaders?” We began the literature research project by gathering articles that we felt would be of interest. We each read the articles and set aside a day to report our findings back to the group. We also collected as much information as possible on our target students. We looked at their past records and at their current programs. Then we had to determine where we would go from here. This was the most difficult time for our team. Up to this point we seemed to have moved along with only a few problems. Now, our meetings seemed to go in circles. We became very frustrated with our lack of progress. Our impatience caused discord among the members of the team. We were able to move past this point by allowing each member to choose a different strategy to research. We chose among strategies that we had either discussed or read about, and then worked with a targeted group of students. Each teacher collected data and then looked to see how her own practice might be improved. In retrospect, this was a good decision. Looking at your own teaching is real professional development. Action Research 19 Working With the Students My part in the project was to work each morning with two of our target fourth-grade students. They would sit with me at the computer and we would write a few sentences about what they were doing in school. This became a newspaper that was sent home to parents. Students had to read what they wrote to their parents and the parents had to sign the newspaper and return it to school. In later editions, we began to have students ask the parents for feedback. As students sat with me and we talked, I was able to help them build and write sentences in English. The process was easy and non-threatening. We also talked about vocabulary and what concepts they were learning in their other content areas. We wrote articles to inform their parents about this. The concept of how to use a pulley is the same in any language. Findings What makes action research so powerful? As a team, we interviewed our students and asked for their views on which of our strategies helped them to become stronger readers. It is powerful to listen to students. Even as seasoned teachers, we can make wrong assumptions about how a child is learning. A staff member from the LAB at Brown helped us to do a linguistic analysis of the students’ comments. For me, this was the most interesting piece. We looked at all the student comments and then charted their responses. For example, we counted how many times they talked about needing to obtain support from a KhmerTHEMES IN EDUCATION 20 speaking teacher. What they said made perfect sense. They needed the most support when their English skills were less developed. This need lessened as they became better English speakers. For us, this supported our own feelings that a few words in Khmer at the right time can make a big difference in their learning. For my own research piece, it was good to learn that most of the parents liked and enjoyed reading the newspaper. By the end of the project, parents began to request articles. Helping Parents To Be Involved With Their Child’s Learning The newspaper was a wonderful way to communicate with our parents about what their children were learning. By having the students write the articles, they were reinforcing their own learning and they were practicing English. Therefore, the student newspaper was a viable idea to teach English sentence structure, reinforce vocabulary, reinforce content skills and information, and communicate with parents. The one common finding from everyone’s research was that students needed to have their lessons supported in Khmer. As they are learning English, they need to be able to go back to their first language to have their learning verified. Action research allows us the opportunity to shape and refine our own teaching and to build on our own successes. Action Research 21 In a climate that is at best stressful, action research allows a teacher to focus her energy in a positive way. So many of the issues in education today are out of our hands. As education continues through the reform process, teachers must have a say in how they change their own practices. I found that action research was a process that helped me to put some of my assumptions to the test. I made unexpected discoveries about my own teaching by listening carefully to students. Action research changes the conversations that take place in a school. This has an incredible effect on the school climate for staff and children. Need For Professional Educational Researchers When doing action research it is vital to have the input of professional researchers. They can bring a perspective and experience to the work that is invaluable. Their presence in the project helps to legitimize that work. With their involvement there is an increased chance that the work will play a role in school or district priorities. Our consultants aided us by helping us to refine our question, establish an action plan and timetable, and reflect on our data to find trends or patterns. Our consultants were able to give us that third-party perspective and reassure us that our work and pace were on target. THEMES IN EDUCATION 22 Julie Nora Roger Williams Middle School * Providence, Rhode Island Before being sent to an action research conference by my department head more than a year ago, I hadn’t given much thought to what educational research could teach me about my own busy classroom. Researchers, it seemed, imagined a reality quite different from my own. Rubrics, flow charts, and scaffolding offered me little in the way of keeping my students engaged or of personally gauging how many of my lessons led to serious learning. My attitude changed when I joined several colleagues at an action research conference in November 1997. As a tool to help teachers ask questions about their everyday work, action research promised something a little different: a chance to study my own practices and the proficiencies of my students with an eye toward what worked and what didn’t. My goals were to assess the current level of performance in my classroom, to experiment with new ways of doing things, to measure the results, and to begin again as necessary. I teach ESL at the Roger Williams Middle School in Providence, Rhode Island. This state now requires most * At the time this reflection was written, Julie Nora taught at the Roger Williams Middle School in Providence, Rhode Island. She is now a program planning specialist at The Education Alliance Northeast and Islands Regional Educational Laboratory at Brown University (LAB). A version of this reflection first appeared in the LAB’s online periodical, Voices from the Field. Action Research 23 fourth-, eighth- and tenth-graders to take part in a standards-based assessment tool created by the National Center for Education and the Economy (NCEE). The test is administered entirely in English and norm-referenced on monolingual English language users. Because of this, and because the state has mandated a 3-5% increase in each school’s level of performance, my concern is on what the consequences of this new assessment will be on non-native speakers of English. As a teacher of these students, what matters most to me can be summed up in the simple question that forms the basis of my classroom inquiry: Does the explicit teaching of the NCEE standards enhance ESL student performance? One of the basic principles of action research is that researchers need each other’s ideas for stimulation and depend on other people’s perspectives to enrich their own. For this reason, I elected to become part of an action research team that would apply for and receive technical assistance from an outside consultant. The group was initially comprised of all of the teachers from our district’s bilingual department who had participated in the conference; but it wasn’t long before our 12-person team dwindled down to just two, myself and an elementary school ESL teacher. Many of the members had joined more out of a sense of obligation to our director than out of a desire to participate at that particular time, while others faced personal obstacles that interfered with their ability to take part. Only the two final members were involved with writing the proposal for assistance. In hindsight we saw that these factors crippled our efforts to build a larger team that could reap the greatest benefits of research collaboration. THEMES IN EDUCATION 24 Still, our two-woman group continued to meet once per quarter to engage in dialogue about our individual questions. The contact I had with my colleague was a 100% increase from the previous year and allowed me to share triumphs and concerns in a productive environment. Knowing that I would be presenting my findings to someone else also helped me to organize my thoughts and my data. Though my usual way of teaching was indeed student-centered, I came to see that it wasn’t building in a circular way as I had thought it was. The increased dialogue between us contributed to the development of our knowledge about teaching and learning. Over time, I came to see that action research demands the skills of two types of professionals: teachers who work in the trenches every day, and educational researchers who can help us to assess our teaching in a way that gives us meaningful information. Teaching is, after all, quite subjective. Our consultant helped us in the initial stages to become aware of the need to conduct consistent data collection. He also helped me to think more about the instruments of assessment I choose so that I am clearly witnessing the results of student change and not of differing conditions. As a result, I became more consistent in the creation of tasks and the assessment of student work. For example, in a weekly computer lab each student read from a book called The House On Mango Street for a fixed period of time, summarized some aspect of what he or she had read, and related it to his or her personal life. The task addressed two NCEE standards, reading and writing. I documented student progress quantitatively and qualitatively on each Action Research 25 element of these tasks. That is, I counted and recorded the number of pages read during the 10-minute period and the number of words written during the remaining 40 minutes. Qualitatively speaking, I was able to document students’ abilities to summarize, relate the reading to their personal lives, and express their ideas in writing. I also began to document student errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling and to use student work as the basis of explicit instruction of common areas of weakness. In the course of the past year, the students in this class have improved dramatically, as action research has allowed me to address their needs and to document their progress. This has felt especially significant in the current atmosphere of accountability. When testing time comes, I certainly hope that my students will be deemed “at standard”; but if they are not, I will know more about their progress than the simple fact that they have failed. I will know what they still need to reach the next level and how I can best help them to get there. Action research has allowed me to see the bigger picture in my work. THEMES IN EDUCATION 26 Frequently Asked Questions Q. What is action research? A. Action research is deliberate, solution-oriented investigation that is group or personally owned and conducted. It is characterized by spiraling cycles of problem identification, systematic data collection, reflection, analysis, data-driven action taken, and, finally, problem redefinition. The linking of the terms “action” and “research” highlights the essential features of this method: trying out ideas in practice as a means of increasing knowledge about or improving curriculum, teaching, and learning (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988). Q. What is the purpose of action research? A. Action research is used for various purposes: schoolbased curriculum development, professional development, systems planning, school restructuring, and as an evaluative tool. Q. How can teachers become researchers? A. A teacher can decide to tackle a problem alone or join with others to learn more how children learn. They can meet after school or during common time to discuss the nature of a problem and decide on a strategy based on an analysis of data. Q. How do I learn more about action research? A. Many local colleges and university offer coursework Action Research 27 on action research. Some private organizations offer workshops on the basic principles of action research and have networks that are open to interested educators. Additionally, contact the regional educational laboratory in your area. Q. How can I use action research in my classroom? A. You can use it to chart the effects of implementation of a curriculum or strategy, to study student learning and responses, or to profile individual students. Q. How does action research benefit students in the classroom? A. Action research can improve the teaching and learning process by reinforcing, modifying, or changing perceptions based on informal data and nonsystematic observations. Q. How does action research benefit teachers? A. Teachers learn what it is that they are able to influence and they make changes that produce results that show change. The process provides the opportunity to work with others and to learn from the sharing of ideas. Q. Why should schools engage in action research? A. Reasons for performing action research fall into three categories: to promote personal and professional growth, to improve practice to enhance student learning, and to advance the teaching profession (Johnson, 1995). THEMES IN EDUCATION 28 Q. What gains can be made from action research that affect students? A. Change is based on data; the student is the subject and object of inquiry. Q. Does action research take away from other instructional time? A. Time must be made to organize, study, collect data, analyze data, and for dissemination. Q. Who will manage action research projects? A. Projects can be managed by the individual teacher or a team leader. With school-wide or district-wide projects, it is not unusual for an outside facilitator to manage the project. Action Research 29 Conclusion This booklet provides information about action research— its history, the different variations occurring in the field, and a step-by-step process that may be adapted by educators or schools to address their need for learning more about practice and successful interventions. While there may be different terms to describe the steps in action research, the basic concept is the same. Educators are working in their own environment, with their own students, on problems that affect them directly. They are at the place where research and practice intersect and real change can occur. Results of their actions can be seen first-hand, and they can build on this information. There are many uses for action research. It is used in curriculum development, as a strategy for professional development, as part of pre-service and inservice programs, and in systems planning for schools and districts. The active participation of teachers and others is part of what makes this a viable and useful tool. The investment of time and energy by the participants provides a sense of ownership and connection to the process and outcomes. Activities of action research and the mindset of those involved in the process become an integral part of the professional repertoire of many educators. When they see the value of their work as they progress through the steps and the reflection time that is used to discuss strategies and methods, they find that the benefits go far beyond student achievement. Practitioners develop skills in analyzing their own teaching methods and begin to unconsciously utilize the principles of action research in their professional life. THEMES IN EDUCATION 30 Action research will not provide all the answers to our questions about how students learn or what educators can do to improve practice. But action research happens at the place where these questions arise; it happens where the real action is taking place; and it allows for immediate action. How Do I Get More Information? For more information about action research or other publications in this series, contact the Information Center of the LAB at Brown University at 1-800-521-9550, (401) 274-9548, or e-mail to info@lab.brown.edu. Acknowledgments The LAB at Brown University wishes to acknowledge Donald Bouchard for reviewing the material for factual accuracy and for providing helpful suggestions. The LAB also wishes to acknowledge and thank the Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, whose successful By Request booklets on educational hot topics spurred us to develop our Themes in Education series. Action Research 31 References Best, J.W., & Kahn, J.V. (1998). Research in education (8th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Borg, W. (1981). Applying educational research: A practical guide for teachers. New York: Longman. Brennan, M., & Williamson, P. (1981). Investigating learning in schools. Victoria, Australia: Deakin University Press. Calhoun, E.F. (1994). How to use action research in the self-renewing school. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S.L. (Eds.). (1993). Inside/outside: Teacher research and knowledge. New York: Teachers College Press. Corey, S.M. (1953). Action research to improve school practices. New York: Teachers College Press. Johnson, B.M. (1995, Fall). Why conduct action research? Teaching and Change, 1, 90-105. Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R. (1988). The action research planner (3rd ed.). Victoria, Australia: Deakin University Press. Kochendorfer, L. (1994). Becoming a reflective teacher. Washington, DC: National Education Association. Little, J.W. (1981). School success and staff development: The role of staff development in urban desegregated schools. Boulder, CO: Center for Action Research, Inc. McFarland, K.P., & Stansell, J.C. (1993). Historical perspectives. In L. Patterson, C.M. Santa, C.G. Short, & K. Smith (Eds.), Teachers are researchers: Reflection and action. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. McTaggart, R. (Ed.). (1997). Participatory action research: International contexts and consequences. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Noffke, S.E., & Stevenson, R.B. (Eds.). (1995). Educational action research: Becoming practically critical. New York: Teachers College Press. THEMES IN EDUCATION 32 O’Hanlon, C. (Ed.). (1996). Professional development through action research in educational settings. Washington, DC: Falmer Press. Oja, S.N., & Smulyan, L. (1989). Collaborative action research: A developmental approach. New York: Falmer Press. Pine, G.J. (1981). Collaborative action research: The integration of research and service. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, Detroit, MI. Sagor, R. (1992). How to conduct collaborative action research. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Watts, H. (1985). When teachers are researchers, teaching improves. Journal of Staff Development, 6 (2), 118-127. Action Research 33 Internet Resources http://ousd.k12.ca.us/netday/links/Action_Research/ begin_guide_action_research This site gives a clear outline and summary of the steps involved in action research. In addition, this site highlights the benefits of the action research process. http://www.phy.nau.edu/~danmac/actionrsch.html This site gives descriptions and diagrams of action research cycles. It also describes the function of each stage in the action research process. http://elmo.scu.edu.au/schools/sawd/arr/arr-home.html This site provides a brief summary of the methodologies used in action research, a bibliography with a substantial list of authors and titles, frequently asked questions, and links to various action research sites. http://educ.queensu.ca/~ar/ This site has various informational and personal essays on action research. It also provides links to other action research sites. http://www.tiac.net/users/dfleming/resource/arwhatis.html This site describes many different forms of action research and how each one is unique and useful. The Northeast and Islands Regional Educational Laboratory a program of The Education Alliance at Brown University Adeline Becker Executive Director, The Education Alliance Phil Zarlengo Executive Director, The LAB at Brown University Vincent Ferrandino Chair, LAB Board of Governors Marjorie Medd Vice Chair, LAB Board of Governors Board Members J. Duke Albanese Barbara Bailey Pamela Berry Paul Crowley David Driscoll Victor Fajardo Charlotte K. Frank Edward McElroy Peter McWalters Richard Mills Thong Phamduy Daria Plummer Olga Lucia Sallaway Theodore Sergi David Sherman Ruby Simmonds Jeanette Smith Jill Tarule Elizabeth Twomey David Wolk The Education Alliance 222 Richmond Street, Suite 300 Providence, RI 02903-4226 Phone: 800.521.9550 Fax: 401.421.7650 Email: info@lab.brown.edu Web: www.lab.brown.edu Northeast and Islands Regional Educational Laboratory
May 24,2010 (8 hours)
845 am- Arrival 905 am- students start coming in. 910 am- Morning meeting starts 920 am sharing time. kids share about what they did over the weekend 1000 am- Math starts. We are working on fractions and using manipulatives. 1045 am-Snack and handwriting 11 am- students in from recess 11:10- Students go to Physical Education 11:30- students go to music 12:00 -go pick up the students 12:05- social studies lesson on Native Americans and the Buffalo 1245-kids go to lunch and recess 100- Kids come back from recess and lunch 115- start of literacy block (read to self) 130- Kids are learning about researching their animal projects 200- I meet with my Book club Girls 300- planners and wrap ups 310-Kids go home
Over the last five years, great strides have been made in finding ways to integrate technology into all parts of the academic curriculum. There are multiple opportunities for improving student writing through the use of technology. While some criticize technology for spell- and grammar-checkers that lessen students' reliance on their own capabilities, research shows that students who use word processing programs to develop writing skills are able to write better compositions (Kulik). The tools available to teachers to develop and improve writing skills abound, through word processing programs and the Internet.
Application in classrooms and similar settings
Technology provides boundless opportunties for teachers to improve writing instruction. Teachers can model writing through the use of a computer connected to an LCD projector. Students can view and learn from the writing process as it is projected. Students can see the writing processes from drafting, to expanding, to editing and revising. Students can use Kidspiration or Inspiration software to brainstorm ideas and create story maps. As a proofreading strategy, students can listen to their writing read back to them by text-to-speech software. Students can peer edit through e-mail, and learn outlining techniques using Powerpoint (Austin). Online journals can be created using blogging, and students can comment on eachother's work. There are numerous websites available for publishing student work.
Readability Statistics. Microsoft Word is equipped with this handy little tool. The tool will count your words, characters, sentences, words per sentence, among other things. Within Readability Statistics, you can find the Flesch-Kincaid grade level, which is a rough calculation that tells the equivalent grade level of the reader to read the particular selection. The readability statistics occur at the end of a spell check. You may have to change your settings to find them (Tools, Options, Spelling and Grammar, Show Readability Statistics). This tool can be used as a motivator for students to improve their writing, by expanding vocabulary, and writing more complex sentences.
Spell Check and Grammar Check. These tools are found on most word processing software. They are certainly not "foolproof," but they can help point students in the right direction in their composition. Critics say that spell check and grammar check cannot replace the "complexity of the human mind," which is no surprise.
Thesis Builder and Online Outline Builder. This website, found at http://www.ozline.com/electraguide/thesis.html, is a great tool for students to organize their thoughts with the purpose of creating a persuasive essay.
Citation Machine. Here is an Internet resource that can build citations in either MLA or APA style for a variety of resources, including books, magazines, websites and many more. Find it at http://citationmachine.net. (Site verified March 25, 2006).
EndNote. While this is not free software, as is citation machine, it is a wonderful way to teach students to store their resources. There are also fields which allow students to write a paragraph summary, for ease of an annotated bibliography. Students can choose from a variety of output styles, including APA, MLA, and many, many others. Students are able to create a different library for each paper or research project, and can easily insert both in-text citation and create bibliography in Word automatically. While it is not free, it is well worth the price!
Paragraph Punch and Essay Punch. Two great websites to help students organized their thoughts on a specific topic. Paragraph Punch can be found at http://www.paragraphpunch.com/. This site helps students write a topic sentence and develop an idea into a well-written paragraph. Essay Punch (http://www.essaypunch.com/) guides students through the procedure of writing an introductory paragraph, three body paragraphs, and a concluding paragraph.
Writing Fix is an incredible site sponsored by the Northern Nevada Writing Project and the National Writing Project. Visit it at http://www.writingfix.com/. Whether you're a writer or a teacher of writing, you will discover not only "Logical and Structured Writing Ideas," but also "Recklessly Creative Writing Ideas." This site does a great job with interactive writing prompts as well as an Interactive Instant Plot, where writers can "get a setting, character, and conflict that inspires a story . . ."
Read, Write and Think, sponsored by the International Reading Association and the National Council of Teachers of English provides a multitude of lesson plans and ideas for teaching writing at all grade levels. Visit it at http://www.readwritethink.org/student_mat/index.asp.
Read Please. Read Please is award-winning text-to-speech software made for Windows. The free version comes with a couple voices to choose from and will read anything you can copy and paste into it. It's a great way to motivate your students to proofread what they've written.
Turnitin Write Cycle, not only is an online service that automatically checks for plagiarism, thus eliminating the ease of copy/paste, but also allows the online collaboration of peer feedback which can be used to improve a student's writing ability. Although the program is not free, you can find out additional information about the program's function, research, and pricing here.
Evidence of effectiveness
From an efficiency standpoint, it would be hard to argue the ease with which students can draft, edit, and finalize a written report using a simple word processing program compared to the pencil and paper methods of the past. If equipped with basic keyboarding skills, students can easily type an assignment and revise endlessly, continuing to improve the finished product. With good and reasonable use of spelling and grammar checking software, students receive immediate feedback on those aspects of their work. Admittedly, they cannot rely completely on these tools, but must have a fairly good basis in spelling, grammar, and punctuation to effectively make use of these tools. Further, they can utilize readability statistics to place their writing at a particular grade level, and explore the statistics related to the assignment, such as number of words, sentences, etc.
Within a creative writing assignment, those students and other writers who experience "writers' block" can find online a variety of story starters, ideas and much more to start the flow of creative expression. Thanks to the sharing component of the Internet, teachers of writing can capitalize on the experiences of other teachers, sharing lesson plans and ideas for improving their students' writing capabilities.
Critics and their rationale
The effect of spell check on writing was analyzed in a study at the University of Pittsburgh. It was found that, among the graduate students surveyed, too heavy a reliance was placed on spell-checking software, and some of those surveyed made changes to text that were already correct. Richard Stern, of Carnegie Mellon University said that "grammar and spelling software will never reach the complexity of the human mind." (Study, CNN).
"Dew knot trussed yore spell chequer two fined awl yore mistakes," is an interesting quote by Brendan Hills that exemplifies the problems with automated spell checking (Quote of the Week). Students can be easily fooled into believing the spell check and grammar check will take care of all their technical problems.
There are conflicting accounts of the impact of technology on writing. Researchers suggest that the effectiveness of technology on the writing process depends on how the teacher implements technology. Simply replacing drill and practice worksheets with drill and practice software is not effective. Teachers need to use technology to enhance instruction and promote active learning (Austin).
Another issue occurs when students, who use computer technology so often for personal communication, bring that type of slang and "half-speak" into educationally viable written texts. The computer is now so much more than a word processor that it is now common place in our society. Like sending an email to a friend, students will crank out a written assignment so fast they might not even read it over before they turn it in. Finding and teaching the line between chatting and writing will make the difference in whether technology is actually helping writing or not.
Alternative explanations due to Diversity considerations
The writing curriculum has been improved for students with disabilities through the use of technology. Pen to paper writing assignments have been difficult for students with motor problems to accomplish successfully in the past. Now, touch screens are available, as are voice activated word processing programs. Students with vision impairments can use screen reading programs. Specialized programs have been developed for students with learning disabilities, not to mention the benefits of spell-check and grammar-check for learners with difficulties in these areas. The bridge from home to school has been shortened, providing opportunities for students to spend additional time outside the school day completing assignments. Specialized software that develops language skills is available, not only for students with learning disabilities, but also for those learning English as a second language. While assistive technologies support students with disabilities in many ways, teachers need to continue to modify and adjust the curriculum for students with special needs.
Signed "life experiences", testimonies and stories
Testimonial of Pat Reed:
It has been my experience that a strong language arts curriculum that includes spelling, phonics, grammar, writing skills and literature is necessary to cultivate good writers. This curriculum can be enriched through the use of technology, but technology alone cannot replace the curriculum. The particular tools and websites described above are just a few of the multitude available to students and teachers to improve student writing. A teacher knowledgeable in the many facets of a language arts curriculum and well-versed in the wide array of technological resources available can educate better writers than a teacher who does not utilize the available technology.
Student motivation is a key factor. Desk work can be tedious, and handwriting and rewriting with pen or pencil often becomes a painful task for students. Teachers are frustrated at their students handwriting, and at times they overlook good content due to poor handwriting. Language arts software and the Internet provide interactive opportunities for students to improve their skills with immediate and individual feedback that is rarely available in a traditional classroom. Students become engaged learners, actively striving to improve their abilities, while having fun at the same time.
Over the last nine years, I worked as the technology coordinator at an elementary school. It was my job to work closely with all subject and grade level teachers to develop lesson plans which integrated technology into all areas of the curriculum. Writing has been a focus for years, as we strive to help our students become good communicators in a digital world. Not only have students developed their writing skills, but also their research skills due to the nature of information available to them with a click of the mouse.
Over the last two years, our school has developed a writing curriculum for seventh and eighth grade entitled "12 Simple Steps to Writing a Research Paper with Technology" (Reed&Darche, 2003). This project, coordinated jointly by the language arts and technology departments, has been quite successful in helping the students prepare for high school. Their writing has become more organized, they know the mechanics of introductory paragraphs, thesis statements, body paragraphs, and concluding paragraphs. They can evaluate the content of websites, and determine what information is reliable and what isn't. They know how to properly cite their sources, and are taught what constitutes plagiarism, and how and why to avoid it.
Is there a downside to using technology in writing? Of course. My frustration level has reached its peak when students replace a misspelled word with another incorrect word using spell check, or when they write "u" instead of "you" in a formal paper because they have spent too much time the night before instant messaging. However, I feel the benefits far outweigh the problem areas (AccessSTEM - Writing Assignments).
Technology does no make the skill of writing easier, but it does remove some of the drudgery. Many of my students type faster than they write, so that they are able to get their thoughts down as they occur. Also, it makes it easier to read, both for understanding, and for editing. Finally, I think my students take their own writing a little more seriously when they see it in print, coming off of the printer. Warner Ferratier
I teach in the elementary schools and we have several programs to help students writing such as Kidspiration and Amazing Writing Machine. Unfortunately, young kids don't know how to type so this makes typing their stories very tedious. For young children, I think they need to be developing writing fluency, an understanding of the writing process as well as grammar and spelling skills. This works best with paper and pencil not a computer. I think that we can use the computer but more to teach the skill of typing so that someday it can be used as a composing tool. E. Elrick elementary/preschool teacher for 7 years.
I truly worry that the writing style and knowledge base of our young people is being negatively affected by the use of word processing programs. If we were to have a student write an essay, for example, would they be able to use correctly grammar, spelling, punctuation, etc.? We have become reliant on technolgy and it does have its benefits. However, we still need to make sure the 'computer' in our head, is able to do things without the computer on our desks. -J. Daeschler
I think it has really hurt our students in terms of using technology as a crutch in their writing. I have seen a drop in spelling scores and an increase in grammar errors because they know that the computer will fix it for them. With the increased use of Instant Messenger services, I think this will continue to get worse. -N. Hartz
With my upper elementary students, the biggest advantage I witness in using technology in writing is the kids' willingness to edit. Typically, the idea of rewriting an essay is about as welcome as a dose of cod liver oil. They do it, to be sure, but under duress. However, when the kids compose, edit, revise, and finalize on the computer (complete will illustrations or graphics) they tend to put more time and effort into the process. It is less tedious, more fun, and therefore they learn more about what they're doing instead of dreading the assignment. - Carolyn St
We have used technology to help reinforce writing skills in preparation for ISAT testing. As a computer teacher, I also realize the benefits of grammar and spelling check software to help correct student work. I used to teach Language Arts, and I dreaded the grading of long student essays. We have also used the paragraph punch and citation machine websites at different times. -S. Yunker
This is interesting because I have always wondered what technology has done to the writing ability of our nations children. It seems like with spell check and grammer check that we have installed in our word processing programs hurts are actually writing skills because it doesn't allow us to learn from our mistakes like normally would from having somebody else read over our work. It just simply corrects the problem and allows us to move on. This is something that should be more researched. J. Simmons
The problem of mis-spelling English using technology truly is a problem not only for young kids, but also among college and graduage students. I am not sure if people using other languages have the same problem, but at least the word processor for Chinese that I am using does not correct the Chinese characters. So I think for children who use English as a common communication tool, it is the teachers' and parents' responsibility to work together to help children realize the problem and overcome it. ---X. Zheng
The negative opinions about word processing make me chuckle. We are in the middle of technology change and teaching methods have not caught up fully to the varied options within the new tools (the word processor). When we went from the quill pens to erasable pencils was there a change in how writing took place and thus taught? or to the typewriter? Of course. The writing process is part thinking, part mechanical, part logistical, moving the developing written ideas to final publishing. Word processors shift these activities at each stage around a bit. Just as the pencil, the ballpoint pen, and the typewriter. As teachers we need to be fully cognizant of that and adapt. I can safely bet that electronic writing will not be going away. -J. Tubbs
Technology, although not without some faults, has helped in many ways in the classroom. There are a variety of pieces of technology our district has adapted to help students learn more efficiently. Whether it is a piece of assistive technology for special education students (software to read text, or speech to text, pictureIt, etc), technology that helps the teacher (projects, document cameras, computers, etc) or technology for regular education students there is a large role for it in the classroom and that role will continue to grow. In our district, students for a number of years each had their own laptop checked out to them from grades 4-6 which helped a great deal with research projects, writing their daily journals and so on. Technology helping with writing, or in general, is definitely here to stay so we need to work with it and help downplay the faults in order to best adapt in our classrooms. E. Bostrom
Many educators have embraced how technology and writing go hand in hand. Using a word processing tool to develop writing can be seen as opening a door to a whole different world. Before writing can begin there are many technology programs that help students organize their thoughts. These technology organizers such as Inspiration or Kidspiration do a great job in creating an outline for the student. It is beneficial for all students’ especially lower level learners who might need extra assistance with organization. After putting thoughts into an organized plan, students can use word processors to put their thoughts into reality. Using the computer also allows kids to use spelling and grammar check. Students learn how to make their writing better through the technology programs that are available. S. Nottoli
Although I teach students how to write using several technologies, I often give them a choice on how they would like to compose their writing. I have several students who prefer to type their first drafts, while others absolutely loathe typing and will save that for just the publishing phase. I think the most important is to expose students to multiple methods of writing, and allowing them to discover what works best for them. -S. Becker
I am both an eighth grade writing teacher as well as a technology teacher. I try to integrate technology as much as possible into student writing. I feel that by doing this, students do not even realize they are writing if they are using technology. One resource that I use for informal writing is [Piclits http://www.piclits.com]. Students pick a stock photo and choose words from a given list to describe the picture. I also like to use Google documents for collaborative writing. Student interaction increases this way because students find it more interesting to collaborate by e-mail than sitting in a group in the classroom. Another great editing tool is to use Audacity and have students record their writing. They quickly start editing their writing, both as they are recording and as they listen to their recording. They hear their mistakes as they are reading their writing and catch more mistakes than ever. - L. Storm
As a high school Social Studies teacher, I have taken on the task of improving student writing. The topics they write on always connect to the content we are studying but they are none the less, writing. I have found as many teachers have that the students HATE writing at all levels. We have a program at my school called MY Access which is designed to give students tools to pre-write, write, and revise, which should improve their writing. The program itself has been useful in some cases on a small scale, but overall the kids have manipulated the program so that they get the "score" they want and then they won't work on their writing anymore. I have found a more successful strategy is as L.Storm mentioned above is to have students use technology such as Photostory or Scratch where they are essentially writing a script but they don't realize they are writing at all. It does not serve the exact same purpose (as formal writing is an extremely important skill) but they are writing more often and honing their skills while enjoying learning! - M. Allen
References and other links of interest
"AccessSTEM - Writing Assignments." Northwest Alliance for Access to Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics. 2001-04. Disabilities, Opportunities, Internetworking, and Technology, University of Washington. 03 Feb. 2005
Austin, S. F., & Lacina, J. G. (2003). Technology and the writing workshop. Childhood Education, 80(2), 101+.